
Class _zlZ „ 

BooL 



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COPXRIGHT DEFOSm 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR ^ 



Business Letter Writing, 

Condensed and Simplified. 



IN THREE PARTS. 



BY 

Norman A. Barrett. 



FOR USE IN 



Business Colleges 

AND OTHER 

Practical Schools. 



CHICAGO: 
H. W. BRYANT, 

•895. 



^ / 






of the pupil, and aid young people to readily acquire a 
proper use of language. It is his hope that such will be 
the case, and that to those who study this book the subject 
of Grammar, so long the schoolboy's horror and aversion, 
will be divested of its terrors, and become not only endur- 
able, but highly interesting. 

N. A. Barrett. 
Chicago, July i, 1895, 



PART I. 
English Grammar. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the science of the English lan- 
guage. 

Language is the expression of thought by spoken or 
written words. 

Words are arranged into sentences, sentences into para- 
graphs, and paragraphs into discourses. 

Although the words of the English language number 
hundreds of thousands, but comparatively few are used even 
by our most fluent writers and speakers. Shakespeare uses 
but 15,000, the Bible but 12,000, the educated writer rarely 
exceeds 10,000, while the ignorant peasant is content with a 
few hundreds. 

Though their number be great, words, like animals and 
plants, may be classified in a few divisions; the basis of 
classification being the office which the word performs. 

These classes are eight in number, as follows: Nouns, 
Pronouns, Adjectives, Verbs, Adverbs, Prepositions, 
Conjunctions and Exclamations. They are called Parts 
of Speech. 

A Noun is a name; as, Thomas, city, goodness. 

A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, /, he, 
who, some, that. 

An Adjective is a word used to limit or define the mean- 
ing of a noun or pronoun; as, wise men, a book, good boys, 
three girls. 

A Verb is a word used to express action, being, or state 
of being; as, I run; he is; they seem. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a 
Verb, Adjective, or another Adverb; as, We go swiftly; very 
rough roads; tolerably well. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



A Preposition is a word used to show the relation of its 
object to some other word; as, the city of Chicago; He 
stays in the house. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, sen- 
tences, and parts of sentences; as, The horse and wagon were 
destroyed but the driver escaped; He went from the bank 
and into a store. 

An Exclamation is a word used to express some sudden 
or strong emotion or feeling; as, Ah! Pshaw! Eh! 

Naming the parts of speech and mentioning their prop- 
erties, modifications, and relations to each other is called 
Parsing. 

This will be made more complete as our knowledge of 
the structure of our language increases. 

We will now begin a careful study of the different parts of 
speech, noticing closely their properties and modifications 
and the relations they bear to each other. 

The student must be thoughtful, diligent, and, above all, 
patient. 

NOUNS. 

A Noun is the name of any person, place, or thing. You 
will notice in your reading that some nouns begin with cap- 
ital letters and others with small letters. Those beginning 
with capitals are the names of particular persons, places, 
or things; those beginning with small letters are names 
applied to anyone of a class of objects. 

These two classes of nouns are called, respectively, 
Proper Nouns and Common Nouns. 

A proper noun is the name of any particular person, 
place, or thing; as, John, Chicago, The French, The Sun. 

A common noun is a name which may be applied to any 
one of a kind or class of objects; as, boy, child, book, city. 

Minor divisions of common nouns are: Abstract nouns 
or names of qualities; as, goodness, brightness, cohesion; 
Collective nouns or names of collections; as, crowd, school, 
jury, army; Verbal nouns, names of actions or states of 
being; as, singing, writing, living, dreaming. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



PROPERTIES OF NOUNS. 

The properties of nouns are: Gender, Person, Number, 
and Case. 

GENDER. 
Gender is a distinction of nouns and pronouns with 
regard to the sex of the objects they represent. 

There are three genders: Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. 

The Masculine Gender denotes males; as, man, father, 
king, governor. 

The Feminine Gender denotes females; as, woman, 
mother, aunt, queen. 

The Neuter Gender denotes objects neither male nor 
female; as, stove, city, pen. 

When such words as parent, child, bird, cattle are used, we 
may call them of the common or uncertain gender, since these 
words are names of things that may be masculine or fem- 
inine. 

Rem. 1. The main use of this classification is to deter- 
mine what pronoun is to be used in place of a noun of the 
third person and singular number. 

Rem. 2. By a figure of speech called Personification, 
gender is sometimes ascribed to inanimate objects; as, "The 
ship has lost her rudder; " " The sun rose in his glory." 

Rem. 3. The distinction of sex is not always observed 
when we speak of young animals and children; as, "The 
kitten is at its play;" " The child is in its cradle." 

There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine 
from the feminine gender: 

1. By prefixes and suffixes; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant; he-bear, she-bear; male-descendant, female-de- 
scendant; cock-sparrow, hen-sparrow; Mr. Smith, Mrs. 
Smith; Mr. Jones, Miss Jones. 

2. By using different words; as, bachelor, maid; bride- 
groom, bride; brother, sister; boy, girl; drake, duck; father, 
mother; gentleman, lady; hart, roe; man, woman; Mr., 
Mrs.; sir, madam; son, daughter; uncle, aunt; male, female; 
Charles, Caroline; Augustus, Augusta. 



10 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. By a difference in the ending of the words; as, 
author, authoress; count, countess; god, goddess; murder, 
murderess. 

PERSON. 

Person is that property of a noun which distinguishes 
the speaker, the person spoken to, and the person or thing 
spoken of. 

The First Person denotes the person speaking. 

The Second Person denotes the person spoken to. 

The Third Person denotes the person or the thing 
spoken of. 

Examples — "I John saw these things;" "We America?is are 
always in a hurry;" "James, be careful;" "Me?i and brethren, 
what shall we do to be saved ? " " Rome was a sea of flame;" 
"Milton was a poet." 

NUMBER. 

Number is that property of nouns which shows whether 
one object is meant or more than one. 

There are two numbers, the Singular and the Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes but one; as, apple, boy, 
girl. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one; as, apples, 
flowers, boys, girls. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

1. Nouns whose last sound will unite with s form their 
plurals by adding.? only, to the singular; as, book, books; boy, 
boys; desk, desks. 

2. Nouns whose last sound will not unite with s form 
their plurals by adding^ to the singular; as, church, churches; 
box, boxes; witness, witnesses. 

3. Nouns ending in / or fe change these endings into 
ves; as, beef, beeves; wife, wives. 

4. Nouns ending injj/ preceded by a consonant change 
y into i and add es; as, glory, glories ; mercy, mercies ; but if a 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



vowel precedes y the ending is regular; as, day, days; chim- 
ney, chimneys; valley, valleys. 

5. Most nouns ending in o preceded by a consonant add 
es; as, cargo, cargoes. Nouns ending in o preceded by a 
vowel add s ; as, folio, folios. 

6. Some nouns form their plurals irregularly; as, man, 
men; ox, oxen; tooth, teeth; mouse, mice. 

7. Letters, figures, marks and signs add 's ; as, " Dot 
your i's and cross your fs." "The g's and the u's, the p's and 
the q's." "Watch your -\-'s and your -s." 

8. In compound words the principal word is generally 
pluralized; as, brothers-in-law, courts-martial, ox-carts. 

If the word is a foreign term or phrase so that the prin- 
cipal word is not obvious, the whole term generally takes 
the plural ending; as, piano-forte, piano-fortes; ipse-dixit, 
ipse-dixits. 

A few names have both parts plural; as, man-servant, 
men-servants; knight templar, knights templars. 

9. When the title Mr., Miss, or Dr. is used with a name 
the whole is made plural by making plural the title only; as, 
Mr. Harper, Messrs. Harper; Miss Brown, the Misses Brown; 
Dr. Lee, the Drs. Lee. 

When the title is preceded by a numeral the name is 
always pluralized; as, the three Miss Johnsons, the two Dr. 
Bensons, the two Mrs. Kendricks. 

10. Many Latin, Greek and Hebrew nouns used in 
English retain their original plurals; as, datum, data; index, 
indices; axis, axes; cherub, cherubim; seraph, seraphim; 
calculus, calculi; nebula, nebulae. 

In case of doubt the student should consult his dictionary. 

* 

GENERAL REMARKS ON NUMBER. 

1. Abstract nouns and names of materials have no 
plurals; as, silver, vinegar, lump, tar, goodness, integrity. 

When different kinds of the same substance are men- 
tioned, a plural form may be used; as, sugars, vinegars, wines, 
oils. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



2. Some nouns have no singular forms; as, ashes, assets, 
bellozvs, billiards, shears, scissors, clothes, to?igs, lees. 

Some nouns have no singular forms, but are singular and 
plural in meaning; as, alms, amends, corps, mumps, measles, 
nuptials, odds, riches, series, suds, tidings, zvages, and some 
others. 

Some nouns are alike in both numbers; as, sheep, deer, 
vermin, couple, salmon, trout, dozen, gross, hose, yoke. 

3. Proper nouns, foreign nouns, and unusual nouns are 
varied as little as possible; hence they merely assume s or es 
when s will not coalesce in sound; as, Mary, the Maries; 
Nero, Neroes; " His works are full of whys, alsos and noes." 

4. Nouns ending in m-a-n that are not compounds of 
m.an have regular plurals; as, German, Germaiis; Norman, 
Normans; Mussulman, Mussulmans. 

5. Some nouns have two plurals, but with a difference 
of meaning; as, brother, brothers (of same family), brethren 
(of same society); die, dies (stamps), dice (for gaming); 
fish, fishes (individuals), fish (quantity); genius, geniuses 
(men of genius), genii (evil spirits); index, indexes (tables 
of contents), indices (algebraic signs); penny, pennies 
(coins), pence (denomination). 

EXERCISE i. 

In the following exercise the pupil should determine the 
gender of each of the following nouns, and for a second 
lesson should write the plural of each. 



Author. 


Datum. 


Baron. 


Seraph. 


Stag. 


Dr. Benson. 


Duck. 


Vinegar. 


Spinster. 


Sheep. 


Bachelor. 


Mary. 


Kitten. 


Trout. 


Child. 


Nero. 


Baroness. 


Why. 


Witness. 


German. 


Mercy. 


Norman. 


Ox. 


Wolf. 


Tooth. 


Beef. 


Mouse. 


9- 


Jew. 


P- 


Chimney. 


Court-martial. 


Lady. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 3 

Mr. Harper. Negro. Miss Brown. 

Thief. Dr. Lee. Goose. 

Stratum. Deer. Axis. 

Miss Scott. Mussulman. 

CASE. 

Case is the relation of a noun or pronoun to other words 
in the sentence. 

Nouns have three cases: Nominative, Possessive, and 
Objective. 

The Nominative Case is the use of a noun or pronoun 
as the subject or the predicate of a sentence. It is also 
sometimes used independently. 

Examples — "The boy learns." Here boy is the subject 
of the sentence, hence, in the nominative case. "He is a 
carpenter!' In this sentence carpenter is the predicate (what 
is asserted) of the sentence, hence, in the nominative case. 
"Joh?i being late, James was chosen." In this sentence John 
is independent of the other words, hence, in the nomina- 
tive case. 

Rem. The independent or absolute nominative is used 
in the following ways : 

1. By direct address; as, "Mary, are you there?" 

2. By exclamation; as, "Gold! The word is magical." 

3. By pleonasm; as, "Our fathers, where are they?" 

4. With a participle; as, "Honor being lost, all is lost." 
The Possessive Case is the use of a noun or pronoun to 

express ownership, authorship, origin, or design; as, Mary's 
book, Packard's Arithmetic, the sun's rays, girl's shoes, 
men's boots. 

The Possessive Singular is formed by annexing 's to the 
nominative; as, John, John's; man, man's. 

The Possessive Plural is formed by annexing the apos- 
trophe only when the nominative plural ends in s; as, boys' 
hats, teachers' duties. 

Rem. 1. Plural nouns not ending in 5 form their pos- 
sessive case by adding 's to the plural nominative; as, 
men's hats, oxen's horns, women's shoes. 



14 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rem. 2. In compound nouns and in complex names the 
sign of possession is annexed to the last word; as, "Henry- 
Clay's speeches;" "The Duke of York's castle." 

Rem. 3. In a series of terms denoting common possession, 
the possessive sign is annexed to the last; as, "Day & 
Duff's grocery." 

In a series of terms denoting separate possession, the sign 
of possession is annexed to each word; as, "Olney's and 
Stoddard's Arithmetics." 

Rem. 4. To avoid an unpleasant succession of hissing 
sounds the s in the possessive singular is sometimes omitted. 
This is admissible in poetry but should be avoided in prose. 

Rem. 5. When the singular and plural are alike in the 
nominative some place the apostrophe after the s in the 
plural to distinguish it from the singular; as, singular sheep's, 
plural sheeps'. 

As the possessive is the only case of nouns that has a 
distinctive form, it is here that mistakes most frequently 
occur, hence, give careful attention to 



EXERCISE 2. 

Write the possessive case of each of the following nouns 
in both the singular and the plural number: 



Actor. 


Farmer. 


Princess. 


Buffalo. 


Mosquito. 


Tyro. 


Cuckoo. 


Ally. 


Alley. 


Attorney. 


Thief. 


Wolf. 


Child. 


Dwarf. 


Goose. 


Ox. 


Fish. 


Deer. 


Sheep. 


Swine. 


Dr. Smith. 


Miss Brown. 


Mrs. Green. 


Duke of York, 


Man. 


Woman. 


German. 


Mussulman. 


Mother-in-law. 


Mr. Smith. 


Knight Templar. 


Storm. 


Chair. 


Book. 


Winter. 


Torrent. 


Army. 


Spring. 


Summer. 


Autumn. 







AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 5 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun is in the Objective Case when 
it is the object of a transitive verb or of a preposition. 

Rem. 1. Transitive means passing over. In the sen- 
tence, " John chops wood," the action expressed by " chops " 
passes over from "John" to "wood." " Wood " is the object of 
" chops " and " chops " is a transitive verb. " James goes to 
Chicago." " Chicago " is the object of the relation ex- 
pressed by the preposition " to." 

Rem. 2. Sometimes the preposition is omitted. This 
is often the case with nouns denoting measure, quantity, time, 
distance, value, or direction. In most cases the preposition 
can be supplied; but sometimes the expression has become 
an idiom of the language and it is difficult to supply an 
appropriate preposition. 

Rem. 3. The relation of possession may often be well 
expressed by the preposition of with the objective, as also 
by the use of such phrases as belonging to, property of, or by 
the use of such verbs as have, hold, possess, etc. 

Rem. 4. Take advantage of these forms in the con- 
struction of your sentences and thus secure smoothness of 
sound and clearness of meaning. Do not say "the corn's 
ears," but " the ears of corn." Avoid such combinations 
as " the witnesses' statements," say " the statements of 
the witnesses." Instead of saying " This is my wife's 
father's spade," say " This spade belongs to my wife's 
father." 

Rem. 5. A noun or a pronoun used to complete the 
meaning of a transitive verb is called a direct object; when it 
is added to a verb to denote that to or for which a thing is 
or is done or that from which anything proceeds it is called 
an i?idirect object. When an indirect object precedes the 
direct, the preposition should be omitted; when it follows 
the direct object it should be expressed; as, "I gave him an 
apple, I gave an apple to him." 



i6 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



SAME CASE. 

A noun limiting the meaning of another noun denoting 
the same person, place, or thing is put by apposition in the 
same case. 

The student will notice that this use of the noun is simi- 
lar to that of the nominative in predicate. 

DECLENSION. 

The declension of a noun or a pronoun is the naming its 
three cases in the two numbers. Examples: 



Singular. 


Plural 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Nom. Boy, 
Poss. Boy's, 
Obj. Boy, 


boys, 
boys', 
boys. 


Nom. Man, 
Poss. Man's, 
Obj. Man, 


men, 

men's, 

men. 


Nom. Lady, 
Poss. Lady's, 
Obj. Lady, 


ladies, 
ladies', 
ladies. 


Nom. Sheep, 
Poss. Sheep's, 
Obj. Sheep, 


sheep, 

sheep's, 

sheep. 



We will now place the result of our researches into the 
nature and use of nouns in the form of a Chart, which the 
student is required to study carefully and to commit to 
memory so thoroughly that he can write it from memory 
when required. 

CHART No. i. 

NOUNS. 

( First. 
Person \ Second. 



Nouns. 



" Common. 



Proper. 



Third. 

Number \ Singular. 

Plural. 



Gender. 



Case. 



Masculine. 

Feminine. 

Neuter. 

Nominative. 

Possessive. 

Objective. 



EXERCISE 3. 

Parse all the nouns in the following sentences: 
1. The storm's fury is past. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. \"J 

2. The hunters followed the hound. 

3. Henry is going to Cincinnati. 

4. The rebellion being ended, the army disbanded. 

5. The Atlantic Ocean is three thousand miles wide. 

6. Johnson the doctor is a brother of Mrs. Jones. 

7. Shakespeare the poet lived in England. 

8. Mary being away, the work was not done. 

9. Ah, Warwick! Warwick! wert thou as we are. 
10. The children coming home from school 

Look in at the open door; 

They love to see the flaming forge, 

And hear the bellows roar. 

EXERCISE 4- 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences: 

1. King Agrippa, believest thou the prophets? 

2. I have seen Mr. Squires the bookseller. 

3. Now fades the glimmering landscape. 

4. All the air a solemn stillness holds. 

5. Flag of the brave, thy folds shall fly, 

6. The sign of hope and triumph high, 

7. When speaks the signal trumpet's tone. 

8. Large was his bounty and his soul sincere. 

9. Too much fear is an enemy to wise counsel. 

10. Patience and perseverance can move mountains. 

11. Neither Mary nor Helen has her lessons. 

12. Thoughts shut up want air. 

EXERCISE 5. 

Correct all errors in the following sentences: 

1. I have no brother-in-laws. 

2. I saw the two Mrs. Jackson. 

3. The Friends' are holding a meeting. They are 
called Quaker's. 

4. He called at Steele's the banker's. 

5. The boys slate was broken. 

6. The mens' wage's should be paid promptly. 

7. The colonel's of the /th regiment's horse was killed. 



18 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. The fellows impudence was intolerable. 

9. My father's in law's house burned. 

10. The mistake was the teacher not the pupils'. 

11. Do you use Webster or Worcesters dictionary? 

12. Brown, Smith, and Jones' wife went shopping. 

EXERCISE 6. 

1. Write in your own language the chief distinction be- 
tween a common and a proper noun, applying the explana- 
tion to the nouns river and Amazon. 

2. Give the person and number of the nouns in the fol- 
lowing sentence: " We scholars study grammar." 

3. Write the plurals of the nouns mercy, lady, glory, 
mouse, folio, 15. 

4. Write the plurals of the following nouns: corps, wages, 
suds, brothers, die, genius, Mr. Harper, Dr. Lee, Mrs. Jones, 
Mary. 

5. Write three nouns having no plural form; three that 
have no singular form; three having singular and plural 
alike. 

6. How does gender differ from sex? 

7. How do you determine that a noun is in the object- 
ive case? 

8. Express the relation of possession in the following 
sentences in a better manner: " The corn's ears are long; " 
" The chair's back is straight;" "This is my wife's brother's 
horse's bridle." 

9. What is the difference between a direct and an indi- 
rect ob]ect? 

10. Write from memory a chart of the noun with its 
uses and relations. 

ADJECTIVES. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or define the 
meaning of a noun or a pronoun; as, a wise man; that book; 
three boys; the fourth series. 

Rem. 1. The word adjective signifies joined or added to. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IO, 

Rem. 2. The adjective is not always joined directly to 
the noun; it may be placed after a verb, i. e., predicated of 
the subject; as, "The fields are green;" "We call the rich 
happy." 

CLASSES. 

Adjectives may be divided into two chief classes: De- 
scriptives and Definitives. 

A Descriptive Adjective both limits and describes its 
noun; as, round tables; sweet apples; bad boys; Germa?i 
songs; twinkling stars. 

A Definitive Adjective limits its noun without describing 
it; as, the river; that man; some apples; three dollars; a boy. 

Adjectives are sometimes divided into several smaller 
classes, namely: Common, Proper, Participial, Compound, 
and Numeral. 

A Common Adjective is any ordinary adjective; as, good, 
hard, this, the, a. 

A Proper Adjective is an adjective derived from a proper 
noun; as, Irish, French, English, Ciceronian. 

A Compound Adjective is a compound word used as an 
adjective; as, hard-worki?ig, iron-hearted. 

A Numeral Adjective is a definitive adjective that ex- 
presses number; as, one, two, first, second. 

Rem. 1. The and a or an are sometimes called Arti- 
cles and classed as separate parts of speech; but there seems 
to be no good reason for doing this. They are definitive 
adjectives and nothing more. 

The is called the definite article and a or an is called the 
i?tdefi?iite article. 

An should be used before words beginning with a vowel 
sound, a before words beginning with a consonant sound. 

A and an are spoken of as one article because they are 
but earlier and later forms of the same word. 

Rem. 2. When a descriptive adjective is used as an 
adjective pronoun, the definite article is prefixed; thus, 
" The good are happy." 



20 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

COMPARISON. 

Comparison is a variation of the adjective to express 
different degrees of quality. 

There are three degrees of comparison: the Positive, the 
Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive degree of an adjective is the adjective used, 
without modification, to denote simple quantity or quality; 
as, long, righteous, slender. 

The Comparative degree of an adjective is that modifica- 
tion of it by which we show that one thing or set of things 
possesses a certain quality in a greater or less degree than 
another thing or set of things; as, " My knife is sharper 
than yours." " This man is taller than those men." " These 
men are more righteous than we." 

The Superlative degree of an adjective is that modifica- 
tion by means of which we show that a certain thing or set 
of things possesses some quality in a greater or less degree 
than any other of the class to which it belongs; as, the tallest 
soldier, the most beautiful woman. 

Rem. Adjectives denoting qualities that cannot exist 
in different degrees cannot with propriety be compared; 
though good writers sometimes compare such adjectives, 
not taking them in their full sense. Examples of such 
adjectives are dead, perpendicular, empty, round, etc. 
FORMATION. 

Adjectives of one syllable generally form their compara- 
tive by suffixing er, and their superlative by suffixing est to 
the positive; thus, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Bold, bolder, boldest. 

Wise, wiser, wisest. 

White, whiter, whitest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable generally form 

their comparatives by joining the adverb more, and their 

superlatives by joining the adverb most to the positive; thus, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Faithful, more faithful, most faithful. 

Dangerous, more dangerous, most dangerous. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rem. 1. This is the general rule, but from it there are 
frequent deviations. Many two-syllabled adjectives ending 
in y, le, ow, and er form their comparative and superlative 
by suffixing erand est; as, 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Happy, happier, happiest 

Able, abler, ablest. 

Shallow, shallower, shallowest. 

But it would sound harshly to say prudenter, earnestest. 
Therefore, in this matter euphony must be our guide. 

Rem. 2. On the other hand short adjectives may be com- 
pared by means of more and most, whenever the sound 
pleases the ear; as, " Mary is the most apt of all the girls." 
" Give us more ample ground." 

Rem. 3. Some adjectives are compared in an irregular 
manner; as, 

Comparative. Superlative. 

better, best 

better. best. 



Positive. 
Good, 
Well, 
Bad, 
Evil, 
111. 

Little, 
Many, 
Much, 

Old, 



worse, 



worst. 

least, 
most. 



oldest, 
eldest. 



less, 

more, 

j older, 
{ elder, 

Rem. 4. When monosyllabic and polysyllabic adjec- 
tives are used together, the monosyllables are placed first 
and all are compared by prefixing more and most; as, " The 
more nice and elegant parts." " The most rude and bar- 
barous people." 

Rem. 5. Avoid double comparatives and superlatives; 
as, "A more healthier location;" " The most strictest rule." 

Rem. 6. Some adjectives have number, and in joining 
them to nouns care must be taken that they do not dis- 
agree. Examples — this, these ; few, many. The following 
adjectives are singular: One, each, every, cither, neither, many a, 
another, much, and all (the whole). 



22 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

The following are plural: The numerals above one, all 
( number), few, several, divers, sundry, and many. 

CHART No. 2. 

ADJECTIVES. 

... ,. (Definitive. ) r . (Positive 

Adjectives j D escr i Pt i ve [Comparison. < Comparative. 
I " • J ( Superlative. 

Commit this chart to memory so thoroughly that you 
may be able to reproduce it when required. 

Notice carefully the meaning of the following definitive 
adjectives; most of them are sometimes used as adjective 
pronouns. 

All; number or quantity. " All men;" "All the land." 

Any; indefinite, opposed to none. 

Both; the two. " Both men were there." 

Divers; several, or many and different. 

Each; two or more considered separately. 

Either; one or the other of two. 

Else; besides. "Any one else." 

Every; all or many separately. 

Few; a comparatively small number. 

Former; preceding in time or place. 

Latter; following in time or place. 

Little; not much. Little with a noun is a descriptive 
adjective. 

Many; a comparatively large number. 

Many a; many considered separately. 

Much; a comparatively large quantity. 

Neither; not the one, nor the other. 

No; not any, not a. 

None; no one, no ones. 

One; a person or thing indefinite, opposed to other 

Other; another, something different or distinct. 

Own; emphatic possession. 

Same; identity, similarity. 

Several; more than two, fewer than many. 

Some; indefinite, opposed to all. 

Such; the same as something else. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 23 

Sundry; emphatically more than one or two. 
That, those; distant or absent in time or place. 
This, these; present or near in time or place. 
Very; used for emphasis. 
What, which; interrogative. 
Yon, yonder; distant but in sight. 

EXERCISE 7. 

Parse the nouns and adjectives in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. A crashing stunning report followed. 

2. Fearful storms sweep these beautiful prairies. 

3. Life is but a fleeting vapor. 

4. These pleasant walks are quaint and secluded. 

5. The ragged wandering beggar felt sad and lonely. 

6. Those broad fields of wheat look green. 

7. He took a two-fold view of that subject. 

8. Bright and joyful is the summer morn. 

9. That excellent steak was cooked rare. 

10. Each gallant soldier was a host in himself. 

11. Both those black horses are lame. 

12. Either of those quiet roads leads to the great city. 

EXERCISE 8. 

1. Such a law is a disgrace to any state. 

2. Repeat the first four lines in concert. 

3. My drowsy powers, why sleep ye so? 

4. Homer was a greater poet than Virgil. 

5. One story is good till another is told. 

6. Silver and gold have I none. 

7. The Australian gold fields are extensive. 

8. The floor was formed of six-inch boards. 

9. Roll on, thou deep and dark blue ocean, roll. 

10. Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest 
thoughts. 

11. If a path is dangerous known, the danger's self is 
lure alone. 

12. Come when the heart beats hisfh and warm. 



24 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. You may have either of them six apples. 

2. Neither of my three hats is large enough. 

3. These men we saw yesterday were Italians. 

4. None of the two young ladies is beautiful. 

5. There are less boys in school than formerly. (Less 
suggests quantity or size; fewer suggests number.) 

6. I have caught less fish than you. 

7. They worship both the sun, moon, and stars. 

8. You may have the peaches on the first three trees. 

9. I never saw a more happier man. 

10. He is the awkwardest, backwardest boy in school. 

11. I would rather have a squarer box. 

12. Which is meanest, a miser or a thief? 

EXERCISE 10. 

1. That book I am reading from was printed in 1640. 

2. I like these kind, but I dislike those kind. 

3. This is the delightfulest village we have seen. 

4. Carrie is the eldest of my two sisters. 

5. She is always welcomer than her brother. 

6. This bed couldn't be more comfortabler. 

7. The room is fifteen foot square. 

8. We went at the rate of forty mile an hour. 

9. The younger of three sisters is the prettier. 

10. Which of these two books is the best? 

11. He is the happiest of his companions. 

12. This belief is rapidly becoming universal. 

EXERCISE 11. 

1. Divide this between the three girls. 

2. The best of the two is to be selected. 

3. That boy is the brig>^est of his classmates. 

4. Texas is larger than any state in the Union. 

5. That opinion is too universal to be corrected. 

6. Neither of the sisters were at church to-day. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 25 

7. It would be prudenter to take the other road. 

8. John is badder than James, but William is gooder. 

9. A apple is bigger than a egg. 

10. The mother seemed the youngest of the two. 

11. Remove this ashes and take away this tongs. 

12. A more healthier location cannot be found. 

PRONOUNS. 

A Pronoun is a word used for a name or instead of a 
noun. The word, phrase, or clause which a pronoun repre- 
sents is called its antecedent. It usually precedes, but often 
follows the pronoun. 

Examples — "The pupil who studies will learn." " Pupil" 
is the antecedent of "who." "He wished to pray, but it was 
denied him." "To pray" is the antecedent of "it." "He 
has wasted his time and now regrets it." " He has wasted 
his time" is the antecedent of " it." 

Like nouns, Pronouns have person, number, gender, and 
case. 

The gender, person, and number of a Pronoun are the 
same as those of its antecedent, but its case depends upon 
the construction of the sentence in which it stands. 

CLASSES OF PRONOUNS. 

Pronouns are divided into four classes: Personal, Rela- 
tive, Interrogative, and Adjective. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns both represent nouns and show by 
their form whether they are of the first, second, or third 
person. 

They are either simple or compound. 

The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it t 
with their declined forms we, c A % mine, my, us, ye, your, yours, 
thy, thine, his, him, her, they, their, them. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by adding 
self or selves to some form of the simple personals; as, 



26 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

myself, yourselves, himself, themselves. They are used chiefly 
for emphasis. 

Thou, thy, thine, thee, thyself, and ye are ancient and 
solemn forms. They are still used in the Bible, in prayers, 
and in poetry. 

DECLENSION OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

The Simple Personal Pronouns are declined as follows: 

FIRST PERSON. 



s 


ingular. Plural. 


Nom. 


I, We, 


Poss. 


My or mine, Our or ours. 


Obj. 


Me; Us. 




SECOND PERSON. 



SOLEMN FORM. COMMON FORM. 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

Nom. Thou, Ye, Nom. You, You, 

Poss. Thy or thine, Your, Poss. Your or yours, Your, 

Obj. Thee-- You. Obj. You; You. 

THIRD PERSON — MASCULINE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. He, They, 

Poss. His, Their or theirs 

Obj. Him; Them. 

THIRD PERSON — FEMININE. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. She, They, 

Poss. Her or hers, Their or theirs, 

Obj. Her; Them. 

THIRD PERSON — NEUTER. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. It, They, 

Poss. Its, Their or theirs, 

Obj. It; Them. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 27 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are declined as follows: 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and Obj. Myself. Ourselves. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

Nom. and Obj. Thyself or yourself. Yourselves. 

THIRD PERSON — MASCULINE, FEMININE, AND NEUTER. 

Singular. Plural. 

! Himself, 
Herself, Themselves. 

Itself; 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Sometimes these compounds are put in apposition to 
another word for the purpose of giving it force; as, "John 
himself went." In such cases they may be called Emphatic 
personal pronouns. 

2. When used after a transitive verb, such pronouns 
are sometimes called Reflexive pronouns as they imply the 
bending back of an action upon the person or thing spoken 
of; as, "John hurt himself!' 

3. You is now employed both as the singular and the 
plural of the second person, but is used only with verbs in 
the plural number; as, "You are" (not art). Thou, the old 
form, is now obsolete except in religious or in poetical use, 
and in the idiom of the Society of Friends. 

4. // is often used without reference to any particular 
antecedent; as, "It rains." 

5. We is often used in place of / in royal proclamations, 
editorials, and when the speaker or writer wishes to avoid 
the appearance of egotism. 

6. In using pronouns of different persons together, the 
second person should precede the third, and the third, the 
first; as, "You, he, and I were there." 



28 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. The pronouns mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and 
theirs are used without their nouns to represent both the pos- 
sessor and the thing possessed; as, " That book is/its," i.e., his 
book. With the exception of his, they can hardly be classed 
as in the possessive case. They are more properly objectives 
or nominatives, according to the construction of the sen- 
tence in which they are used. 

8. To denote emphatic distinction my own is used for 
mine, his own for his, and in like manner the others above 
mentioned. 

EXERCISE 12. 

Substitute plural for singular pronouns in the sentences 
which follow: 

1. He asked his brother to wait for him. 

2. She asked her sister to come for me. 

3. Did you leave your parcel with her? 

4. John says that he has not heard him sing. 

5. It was an old book that I gave to my sister. 

6. I myself saw him and her at the Fair. 

7. It was not I that saw her. 

8. He makes better use of his time than I. 

9. She gave a book to me and him. 

10. He himself gave his book to me. 

11. She left her shawl at her friend's house. 

12. He and I bought a book of him. 

EXERCISE 13. 

In the following sentences change the case of each pro- 
noun: 

1. We saw him and her at the World's Fair. 

2. They saw us but they did not speak. 

3. He and I visited her at her home. 

4. They called us but we did not answer them. 

5. I went with him to see them. 

6. Are you the brother who visited them? 

7. Has she a sister living in our city? 

8. We thought they were coming to visit him. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 20, 

9. I thought she was with us. 

10. It rained too hard to go with him. 

11. We will visit her at her friend's home. 

12. Did he go with you to call on her? 

EXERCESE 14. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. He and I attend the same school. 

2. She gave her sister a new book. 

3. Have you seen them today? 

4. I saw it myself when we were fishing. 

5. You yourself told me of his death. 

6. We will visit the World's Fair on Monday. 

7. That large boy gave an apple to me. 

8. I see them on their winding way. 

9. Above their ranks the moonbeams play. 

10. We mustered at midnight, in darkness we formed. 

11. No drum beat had called us, no signal we heard. 

12. No word of command was given us. 

EXERCISE 15. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Him and me both study grammar. 

2. I and he were playmates. 

3. Every person should improve their mind. 

4. Each scholar should learn their lessons. 

5. Them molasses cost me a dollar a gallon. 

6. Both John and Samuel got his lesson. 

7. Which of the boys finished their work first. 

8. They had some victuals left and we ate it. 

9. The hen-hawk caught a hen and killed her on her 
nest. 

10. The earth is my mother; I will rest on its bosom. 

11. It is me not her who you wish to see. 

12. If any one has not paid their fare, they will pay it at 
the office. 



30 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun used both to represent 
a preceding word or phrase called its antecedent, and to 
join to it a limiting clause; as, " No people can be great who 
are not virtuous." " I have found the sheep which was lost." 
" Xerxes commanded the Spartans to send earth and water, 
which they refused to do." 

Rem. The antecedent is the word or phrase upon 
which the relative clause depends. It may be either a 
definite or an indefinite antecedent; when it is indefinite 
the Relative Pronoun stands alone; as, "Who steals my purse 
steals trash." 

The Relative Pronouns are who, used to represent per- 
sons; which, used to represent inferior animals and lifeless 
things; that, used to represent both persons and things and 
to take the place of who and which under certain circum- 
stances; and as and but, which words by an idiomatic use of 
our language sometimes are used as relatives. 

Rem. 1. The difference between Personal and Relative 
Pronouns is shown by the following distinctions: 

1. Personal Pronouns have a distinct form for each per- 
son; Relatives do not. 

2. A Personal Pronoun may be the subject of an inde- 
pendent sentence; a Relative is always found in a depend- 
ent clause. 

Who and which are alike in the singular and the plural 
and are inflected as follows: 

Singular and Plural. Singular and Plural. 

Norn. Who, Which, 

Poss. Whose, Whose, 

Obj. Whom; Whom. 

That and ivhat are indeclinable. 

Rem. 1. That is sometimes used as a definitive adjective, in 
which case it is placed before the noun it limits; as, " I know 
that man." That is an adjective pronoun when it represents 
its noun understood; as, " I saw that!' That is a conjunction 
when it joins a dependent clause to the principal sentence; 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 3 1 

as, "I know that he is here." That is a Relative Pronoun 
only when who, whom, or which can be substituted for it. 

Rem. 2. What is sometimes used as a definitive adjec- 
tive, in which case it is placed before the noun it limits; as, 
" I send you what money I have." It has at the same time 
the force of a relative; thus the foregoing sentence is 
equivalent to, " I send you that money which I have." 
What, when a relative, can be changed into that which or the 
thing which; as, " Tell me what (that which) you know." 
Besides being a relative, what may be an interrogative pro- 
noun; as, "What did you see?" an interrogative adjective; as, 
"What book have you?" an exclamation; as, "What! Is thy 
servant a dog? " and an adverb; as, "What{ partly) by force 
and what by fraud he secures his ends." 

Rem. 3. As is often used as a substitute for a relative 
pronoun, especially after same and such; as, " Art thou 
afraid to be the same in thine own act as thou art in desire ? " 
" Tears such as angels weep burst forth." 

Rem. 4. But is used as a relative when it follows a neg- 
ative. Its force is then equivalent to who not or which not; as, 
"There is no fireside howsoe'er defended 
But has (which has not) one vacant chair." 

Compound Relatives are formed by adding ever, so, and 
soever to the simple relatives. 

Rem. Whoever, whoso, and whosoever are equivalent to 
he who or any one who. Whichever and whichsoever are 
equivalent to any which. Whatever and whatsoever are equiva- 
lent to any thing which. 

These compounds are indeclinable and are parsed like 
the simple relative what. 

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is a pronoun used in asking 
a question. They are Who? Which? and What? Who and 
which are declined in the same manner as the correspond- 
ing relatives. 

Who is applied to persons; as, "Who said so?" "Whose 
is this?" "To whom shall I apply?" 



32 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Which is applied to both persons and things when used 
to ask which individual of a known class or number is in- 
quired for; as, "Which of you did this?" "Which shall I 
take?" 

What is used with reference to things in an indefinite 
manner; as, "What shall I say?" "What do you want?" 

Rem. 1. When a definite object is referred to, which 
and what are definitive adjectives; as, "Which lesson shall 
we learn?" When an indefinite object is referred to the 
interrogative takes its place; as, u Which is mine?" 

Rem. 2. In parsing interrogatives give them the person, 
number, and gender of the object to which they refer. If 
this be indefinite, these points may be classed as uncertain. 

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 

An Adjective Pronoun is any adjective used in place of 
a noun; as, "Such as we want we use;" "The good alone are 
the great;" "This is larger than that." 

Rem. A cardinal rule in parsing should be: 

Parse each word in accordance with the office it performs i?i 
the sentence where it is used, regardless of what it may be called 
elsewhere. 

EXERCISE 16. 

Parse the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the follow- 
ing sentences: 

1. I hope you will return the book I lent you. 

2. Tell me what the prisoner said in reply. 

3. Ours are as good as yours, but his are better. 

4. You must blame yourselves for your loss. 

5. Who would be free, themselves must strike the blow. 

6. She deserves great praise for her excellent work. 

7. Behold the moon; she cometh forth in her beauty. 

8. This is not the book that I sent you for. 

9. He closed the shutters which darkened the room. 

10. I will go with you and him to see them. 

11. Why is my sleep disquieted? Who is he that calls 
the dead? 

12. Some are lazy, others stupid, others heedless. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 33 

EXERCISE 17. 

1. Virtue is the one condition of true happiness. 

2. Ye are the light of the world. 

3. That garment which you sold me is worthless. 

4. One ounce of gold is worth sixteen ounces of silver. 

5. The prayers of David the Son of Jesse are ended. 

6. Every man went to his house carrying his spoil. 

7. The army is loaded with the spoils of nations. 

8. Be of the same mind, one toward another. 

9. He sacrificed every thing he had in the world. 

10. Who is here so base, that he would be a bondsman? 

11. Beauty is but a vain, a fleeting good, a shining gloss. 

12. What black, what ceaseless cares besiege our state. 

EXERCISE 18. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. Whom do you suppose it was? 

2. Whom do you suppose it to be? 

3. One should not think too favorably of themselves. 

4. Do you know who you are talking to? 

5. The army was cut up, or at least they suffered much. 

6. Be sure to tell nobody whom you are. 

7. Each of the sexes should keep within their bounds. 

8. The council were divided in its estimates. 

9. The moon appears but the light is not his own. 

10. Whom say the people that I am. 

11. They that honor me I will honor. 

12. She was a modest flower, which he dared to love. 

EXERCISE 19. 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. The cow whom my father bought has strayed. 

2. The boy which sets yender has got his sums did. 

3. The sun lays into our south winder. 

4. This is the man who we sent for. 

5. The boy who I saw was as tall as me. 

6. This 'ere talk of ritin sentences is nonsense. 

3 



Nouns 



Pronouns 



34 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. I wish I was her. I thought it was him. 

8. He that promises much, do not trust. 

9. He is older than me, but I am taller than him. 

10. You can write as well as me. 

11. Who saw the man when he passed? Me. 

12. If I were him, I would get that I could. 

CHART No. 3. 

NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

C First. 

„ r f Person -i Second. 

r Common.... [Third. 

^ Pr ° per Number {f^f 

( Masculine. 

Personal Gender \ Feminine. 

Relative [ Neuter. 

Interrogative. ( Nominative. 

Adjective. . . . I Case j Possessive. 

[ Objective. 

Commit this chart to memory, that you may be able to 
reproduce it. 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word used to express action, being, or state of 
being; as, " I wn'fe;" " He is;" " The house stands;" "They 
were chosen." 

Rem. 1. The being, action, or state may be represented 
as belonging to a subject as in the examples given above, 
or it may be stated abstractly; as, " to be;" " to write;" " to 
stand;" "to be chosen." 

Rem. 2. Verbs frequently consist of two or more words; 
as, "He may be living ;" "He could have been elected." 

FORM. 

With respect to their form verbs are either Regular or 
Irregular. 

A Regular Verb forms its past indicative and perfect par- 
ticiple by the addition of d or ed to the present indicative 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 35 

or simplest form of the verb; as, hate, hated; count, counted; 
love, loved. 

An Irregular Verb does not form its past indicative and 
perfect participle by adding afor^ to the present indicative; 
as, see, saw, seen; go, went, gone. 

USE. 

With respect to their relation to their subjects, verbs may- 
be classed as Active, Passive, and Neuter. 

An Active Verb represents its subject as acting; as, 
"John writes." 

A Passive Verb represents its subject as acted upon; as, 
" The letter is written." 

A Neuter Verb expresses no action, but it implies being 
or condition; as, " I am;" " Your hat lies on the table." 

Active Verbs are Transitive or Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb expresses an action terminating upon 
an object; as, " He chops wood." 

An Intransitive Verb expresses an action which does 
not terminate on an object or whose termination is not 
stated; as, "John chops;" " He writes;" " He walks." 

Rem. 1. The Passive Verb is formed from the Active 
by prefixing some form of the verb to be to the past par- 
ticiple of the Active Verb; as, "He writes (active); "A 
letter is writte?i" (passive). These forms are called by most 
grammarians Active and Passive Voices. 

Rem. 2. Some Transitive Verbs are used in a causative 
sense; as, "The farmer burns wood," i. e. t causes wood to 
burn. 

Rem. 3. Some verbs are transitive in op/l signification 
and intransitive in another; as, "Hq breaks the stick;" "The 
stick breaks easily." 

Rem. 4. A verb usually intransitive may become tran- 
sitive: 

ist. When it is used in a causative sense; as, "He walks 
the horse," i. e., causes the horse to walk. 

2d. When the object is like the verb in meaning; as, 
"He dreams a dream." 



36 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3d. By poetic license; as, "Soft eyes looked love to eyes 
that spake again." 

Rem. 5. Some verbs are followed by two objects that 
are in apposition; as, "They made him captain." 

Rem. 6. Some verbs are followed by two objects, one 
of which is governed by the verb and is called the direct 
object. The other is or may be governed by a preposition 
understood and is called the indirect object; as, "He asked 
me a question" = He asked a question of me. 

As has been said, the passive verb is formed directly 
from the active by prefixing some form of the neuter 
verb to be to the past participle of the active verb. When 
this is done, the direct object of the active verb becomes 
the subject of the passive, and the subject of the active 
verb becomes the object of a preposition; as, " He cut the 
wood" = The wood was cut by him. 

Rem. 1. Certain active intransitive verbs are sometimes 
used with a passive force; as, " The stick splits easily;" " The 
bridge is building" 

Rem. 2. A few verbs assume the passive form though 
used in ah active sense; as, " The melancholy days are 
come," i. e., have come; " She is gone," i. e., has gone. 

Rem. 3. The passive form is used when the agent is 
unknown, or when we wish to conceal it and call attention 
to the act and its object alone. When we wish to call 
attention to the agent, the active form is used. 

COMPLEMENT. 

A Transitive Verb does not of itself make a complete 
statement; it requires a completing term. The complement 
of any verb is the word or words required to complete the 
statement. 

The complement of a transitive verb is called its object. 
The object is always a noun, or its equivalent, in the ob- 
jective case. Neuter verbs also require a completing term, 
but of a different kind from that required by the transitive 
verb. Their complement is either a predicate noun or pro- 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 37 

noun, usually in the nominative case, or a predicate adjec- 
tive. The noun or its equivalent in their complement is but 
another name for their subject, and the adjective in predi- 
cate is a modifier of their subject. 
Notice the following examples: 

1. Mary is beautiful. (Complement an adjective de- 
scribing Mary.) 

2. Elizabeth was queen (complement a noun another 
name for Elizabeth). 

3. A boy becomes a man (complement a noun, another 
name for the individual acting as subject). 

4. He seemed cheerful (complement an adjective de- 
scribing the subject). 

5. Macbeth \ooYe<\ pale (adjective complement describ- 
ing the subject Macbeth). 

Besides the classes already mentioned there are several 
minor classes, which, although not distinct from verbs, act- 
ive, passive, and neuter, have peculiarities of their own. 

An Auxiliary Verb is a verb used to assist in conjugating 
other verbs. 

Rem. The term "conjugating" will be explained here- 
after. 

A Unipersonal Verb is a verb by which an act or state is 
asserted independent of any particular subject; as, "It 
rains." 

Rem. Meseems, metkinks, methought may be regarded 
as Unipersonal Verbs equivalent to It seems to me, I think, 
I thought. 

Defective Verbs are those which lack some of their princi- 
pal parts; as beware, ought, quoth, wit and the auxiliaries. 

Redundant Verbs are those which have more than one 
form in some of their principal parts; as, cleave ; past tense 
cleft, clove or clave ; past participle, cloven, cleaved or cleft. 

The principal parts of a verb are the present indicative, 
the past indicative, the present participle, and the past participle. 
They are so called because by means of these and the aux- 
iliary verbs all the other parts of the verb can be formed. 



38 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 20. 

Select and classify the verbs in the following sentences: 

1. The general sent a message and I carried it. 

2. The wild cataract leaps in glory. 

3. With my cross-bow I shot the albatross. 

4. The farmer sows the seed and the grain grows. 

5. Alexander marched an army into Persia. 

6. Ten thousand swords leaped from their scabbards. 

7. There are more worlds than one. 

8. He lived a wicked life and died a fearful death. 

9. How pale you look; are you sick? 

10. Richard reads a book, he reads well. 

11. We shall not look upon his like again. 

12. Pope says, "Whatever is, is right." 

EXERCISE 21. 

1. The lightnings flashed a brighter curve. 

2. He broke my chain. It broke easily. 

3. Those men are playing a game of chess. 

4. He ran the horse. The horse was running. 

5. He taught me grammar and arithmetic. 

6. We all rejoiced at his success. 

7. The ship struck upon a rock. I struck him. 

8. He has not shaved this morning. 

9. The barber shaved me yesterday. 

10. Get your umbrella and get out of my way. 

11. I withdrew my claim. The deputation withdrew 

12. Every one laughed. They laughed him to scorn 

EXERCISE 22, 

1. Sarah loves flowers. She is loved. 

2. John was astonished at the news. 

3. William saw a meteor. The meteor was seen. 

4. I have written a book. The book was written. 

5. He ran a race. He ran a thorn into his finger. 

6. Stay where you are. Keep your place. 

7. I dreamed a dream. He dreamed last night. 

8. Spread the news. The water Spread over the lwnd. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 39 

9. The baby speaks already. It will speak English. 

10. John is not able to tell what he knows. 

11. The melancholy days are come. 

12. Come, when the heart beats high and warm. 

PROPERTIES OF VERBS. 

The properties of verbs are Mode, Tense, Number, and 
Person. 

MODE. 

Mode is the manner in which the action, being or state 
of being is asserted. 

There are five modes: The Indicative, the Subjunctive, 
the Potential, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

The Indicative Mode asserts an action as a fact or as 
actually existing; as, "The house burns," " The house was 
burned." 

Rem. The Indicative Mode is used, interrogatively, in 
exclamative sentences, and in subordinate sentences to de- 
note what is actual, or assumed to be actual; as, "Is he at 
home?" "The scoundrel has my purse!" "I hear that you 
have been sick." 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The Subjunctive Mode asserts an action as doubtful, as 
a wish, as a supposition, or a future contingent event; as 
" If this be he, I am content;" "Had I the wealth of Crce- 
sus;" " If you go, I will follow." 

Rem. 1. This mode is called S7(bju?ictive because it is 
chiefly used in subjoined or subordinate propositions. 

It is joined to the verb of the principal sentence by the 
subordinate connectives if, though, except, less, that, unless, 
and some others. These connectives are called the signs 
of the subjunctive. 



40 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 2. The conjunctions if, that, etc., may precede the 
indicative mode when the verb is used to assert an assumed 
fact. 

Rem. 3. The conjunction is not a part of the verb itself; 
for an assertion may be made subjunctively by merely put- 
ting the verb or its auxiliary before the subjunctive; as, 
" Were he"=ifhe were. "Had he gone" '=tf he had go?ie. 

Rem. 4. The present subjunctive represents the thing 
supposed as possible, though doubtful, and also implies 
future time; as, " If I go I will inform you." 

Rem. 5. The Past Subjunctive denotes time, indefinite 
or present, and the supposition unreal; as, " If I were rich, 
I would buy it." 

Rem. 6. The Past Perfect Subjunctive denotes past 
time and a supposition unreal; as, " Had I been called, I 
would have come." 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

The verb in the Potential Mode may express power, 
possibility, liberty, inclination, duty, necessity, wish; as, 
" I can go; " " It may rain; " " You may go; " " I would go; " 
" I should go; " " I must go ;" " May you be happy." 

Rem. The signs of the Potential Mode are the auxilia- 
ries, may, can, must, might, could, would, and should. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

The Imperative Mode expresses a command, an exhor- 
tation, an entreaty, or a permission; as, " Charge, Chester, 
charge!" " Do come to see us," " Lead us not into tempta- 
tion." 

Rem. 1. The Imperative Mode may be known usually 
by its omission of the subject. It is used only in the pres- 
ent tense, and in the second person. 

Rem. 2. The Imperative Mode is sometimes used to 
denote merely the intention or wish of the speaker, without 
special reference to any person addressed; as, God said, 
"Let there be light;" "Deliver me from such friends." "It 
may also be used to express indifference; as, "Let it rain." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 4 1 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

The Infinitive Mode expresses an act, being or state of 
being, unlimited by a subject; as, "To walk;" "To have 
walked'' 

Rem. 1. The Infinitive Mode may usually be known by 
the sign "to" placed before it. 

This sign is omitted after the verbs bid, dare (to venture), 
feel, hear, let, make, need, see, with some others; as, "Bid them 
be quiet;" "I dare go ;" "See him run." 

Rem. 2. The Infinitive is also used as an abstract noun 
in various relations, and when thus used, may govern an 
object, be modified by an adverb, and have a predicate ad- 
jective belonging to it. 

EXERCISE 23. 

Mention the mode of the verbs in the following exer- 
cises: 

1. See, a great storm is raging. 

2. I tell you that you may go or stay. 

3. Tell Lucy to bring me some flowers. 

4. Be quiet, my soul, hope thou in God. 

5. If he study, he will excel. 

6. If he studies it is when he is alone. 

7. Were I rich, I would purchase that farm. 

8. Who will venture to go with me. 

9. Do let me see your book. 

10. I must not be tardy, or I shall be fined. 

11. Lift up your heads, O ye gates. 

12. Blessed are the poor in spirit; for theirs is the king- 
dom of heaven. 

EXERCISE 34. 

1. He would have told you if he could. 

2. They dare not puzzle us for their own sakes. 

3. Let us not deceive ourselves longer. 

4. God help us! It would be sad if this were true. 

5. If a line is parallel to a line of a plane, it is parallel 
to that plane. 



42 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. The work is pleasant when the sun shines. 

7. If it rains, I shall not go to Boston. 

8. The children went to the garden to see the flowers. 

9. May I go to the concert, if you go? 

10. Be entreated by me; remain at home. 

11. If I send her home, she will be unhappy. 

12. Do let me help you; I believe you innocent. 

EXERCISE 25- 

1. He maketh me to lie down in green pastures. 

2. Hope thou in God who is thy helper. 

3. A woman's heart should beat constant. 

4. Reign thou in hell, thy kingdom. 

5. Let me serve in heaven God ever just. 

6. Place me on Sunnium's marble steep. 

7. There swan-like, let me sing and die. 

8. He speaks so low, that he cannot be heard. 

9. He will neither come, nor send apology. 

10. Remain where you are, till I return. 

11. I know not whether to go or to remain. 

12. I can not write for you, for I have cut my finger. 

TENSE. 

Tense is a grammatical form of the verb, denoting the 
time of the action or event asserted, and its degree of com- 
pleteness. 

There are three divisions of time in which an action or 
event may occur; the Present, the Past, and the Future. 

Hence, arise three absolute tenses; the Present, the Past, 
and the Future. 

In each of the three divisions of time, an action may be 
spoken of as complete or perfect. Hence arise, three rela- 
tive tenses: The Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the 
Future Perfect. 

Rem. The Present Perfect, Past Perfect and Future 
Perfect Tenses are formed by prefixing to the past partici- 
ple of a given verb the Present, Past, and Future Tenses of 
the auxiliary verb to have in the mode required. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 43 

MODES WITH THEIR TENSES. 

The Indicative Mode has all the six tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or event as taking 
place in present time; as, "I see the flower;" "You smell 
its perfume; " " Napoleon scales the Alps; " " He conquers 
Italy." 

The Present Perfect Tense represents an action or event, 
as completed in present time, or in a period of time of which 
the present forms a part; as, " I have finished it today; " 
" He has returned." 

The Past (sometimes called the Imperfect Tense) repre- 
sents an action or event as taking place in time wholly past; 
as, " Columbus discovered America;" "The Vikings sailed 
from Norway." 

The Past is formed either by change of ending or by a 
radical change. 

Regular verbs form their Past Tense by the addition of 
the suffix ed\.o the root; as, discover, discovert. 

Irregular verbs form their Past Tense in some other way; 
a.s,f?id, found; freeze, frozen. 

The Past Perfect Tense represents an action or event as 
taking place and completed at or before some other past 
time; as, " I had written before you left; " "I had finished my 
work when he came." 

The Future Tense represents an action or event as yet to 
take place; as, " I will see you again." 

The Future Tense is formed by combining the root or in- 
finitive of a given verb with the auxiliaries shall and will. 

Rem. In Anglo-Saxon the verbs shall and will were fol- 
lowed by the infinitive, but in English they form a closer 
connection. 

The Future Perfect Tense represents that an action or 
event will be completed at or before some time yet future; 
as, "I shall have finished my work by noon." 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

The Potential Mode has four tenses; the Present, the 
Present Perfect, the Past, and the Past Perfect. 



44 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. These so-called tenses, however, are only forms 
of the verb, and by no means represent the relations of 
time which their names indicate. 

The Present Potential is formed by joining the root of a 
given verb with the auxiliaries may, can and must. 

This tense denotes the present possibility, power, liberty, 
or necessity of an advent either present or future; as" You 
may go" (now); "It may rain" (tomorrow); "The boy can 
write" (now); "She must go" (now or hereafter). 

Rem. These auxiliaries may, can, must were once princi- 
pal verbs, followed by the infinitive without the preposition 
"to" 

The Present Perfect Potential denotes present possibility, 
liberty, or necessity with respect to an action or event, 
regarded as past; as, " He may have written" (It is now 
possible that he wrote or has written). 

The Present Perfect Potential is formed by placing the 
auxiliary have between may, can, or must, and the past par- 
ticiple of the given verb. 

The Past Potential is formed by joining the auxiliaries 
might, could, would or should to the root of a given verb. 

Rem. Tense expresses a variety of meanings; as, 
"Judges shoidd be merciful" (a duty or obligation without 
respect to time); " He would be absent a week" (a habit or 
custom in past time); "He could walk" (ability in past time); 
" I could write" (present ability) ; " If I should write you must 
answer" (future possibility). 

The Past Perfect Potential denotes ability, possibility, or 
liberty, with respect to some past action or event which, im- 
pliedly, was not performed or did not occur; as, " I could 
have done it; if you had asked me," i. e., I was able to do it 
but you did not ask me, therefore, I did not do it. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

The Subjunctive Mode has three tenses: The Present, 
the Past, and the Past Perfect. 

The Present Subjunctive is a simple tense having the 
same form as the Indicative, except that the personal end- 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 45 

ings st (second person) and s (third person singular) are 
omitted. 

The verb "to be" is an exception to this statement. 

Rem. This tense often implies future time, that is, it 
implies present uncertainty as to a supposed future action 
or event; as, "If I go (if I shall go), I shall go alone;" 
" Beware lest you fail" (lest you shall fail). 

The Past Subjunctive has the same forms as the Past In- 
dicative, except that st, the termination of the second per- 
son singular, is omitted. 

Rem. The Past Subjunctive generally expresses a sup- 
position contrary to the fact and represents present time; 
as, " If I were going (now), I would ride." 

The Past Perfect Subjunctive simply denotes past time 
and denies the action or event; as, "If I had started sooner, 
I should have been there." 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

The Imperative Mode has only the present tense. This 
has respect only to the time of giving the command; the 
time of its performance is necessarily future. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

The Infinitive Mode has two tenses, the Present and 
Present Perfect. 

Rem. Tense does not properly belong to the Infinitive 
Mode since it cannot be used as a predicate. Its tenses are 
only forms having no regard to time. The present denotes 
progressive or completed action or state with reference to 
past, present or future time. The present perfect denotes 
a completed action or state in an unlimited manner. 

USES OF SHALL AND WILL. 

Shall and Will are the signs of the future tense. Shall 
expresses the action or event. 

1. As a duty commanded or authorized; as, " He shall 
pay you;" " Thou shalt not steal." 



46 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. As something unavoidable unless a condition be com- 
plied with; as, " I shall suffer, if I do not take care." 

3. As simple futurity; as, " You shall often find the 
richest men the meanest." 

Will represents the action or event as something deter- 
mined upon or proceeding from the nature of things; as, ( I ) 
" I will go; nothing can prevent me;" "This cause will raise 
up armies;" (2) As simple future; as, " You will feel better 
to-morrow." 

Shall in the first person and will in the second and third, 
are usually employed to denote futurity; as, "We shall be 
there to-night;" " You will be with us;" " He will go." 

Will is used in the first person to denote determination, 
and shall in the second and third, to denote necessity; as 
"I will write to you;" "Neither you nor he shall go with 
me." 

The rules just given apply with equal force to should and 
would. 

PERSON AND NUMBER. 

The perso?i and number of a verb are changes in their 
form to suit the person and number of their subject. Like 
the subject the verb has two numbers and three persons. 

Rem. 1. The first person singular and the first, second 
and third persons plural are alike in all verbs except the 
verb to be. 

The second person singular is like the first, except in the 
solemn style, where it is formed by adding st or estto the 
first person; as, "Thou lovest me not." 

The third person singular is formed from the first by 
adding s or es. In the solemn style, it ends in eth; as, "He 
goeth." 

Rem. 2. By long established custom, the second person 
plural is used in place of the second person singular, except 
in the solemn style. 

Rem. 3. The Imperative Mode has usually only the 
second person; as, "Go thou;" "Go you;" "Do you go." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 47 

AGREEMENT. 

A verb must agree with its subject in number and person. 

Rem. 1. When two or more subjects differing in person 
are connected by and, the verb prefers the first to the second 
and the second to the third. 

When they are taken separately or are connected by or 
or ?wr, it prefers the person of its nearest subject. 

Rem. 2. Courtesy requires the first place for the second 
person and the last place for the third. 

SINGULAR ANTECEDENTS. 

The following subjects or antecedents are singular: 

1. A noun or pronoun denoting a single object or a 
group of objects regarded as a single thing; as, "John is at 
home; " " His family is large." 

2. A plural noun denoting but one thing, or two or 
more nouns joined by and, yet denoting but one thing; as, 
" The Pleasures of Hope was written by Campbell; " " Bread 
and milk is good food." 

3. Singular subjects connected by or or nor and singular 
subjects that are modified by each, every, either, ?ieither, many a, 
or no require verbs in the singular. 

PLURAL ANTECEDENTS. 

The following subjects, or antecedents, are plural: 

1. Two or more subjects connected by and, but denot- 
ing different persons or things; as, Susan, Mary, and Helen 
are here. 

2. A subject plural in sense or a collective noun singu- 
lar in form but plural in idea; as, "The fires bum; " "The 
jury were divided." 

3. A singular and a plural subject or two or more plu- 
rals connected by or or nor. 

CAUTIONS. 

The following terms do not affect the form of the verb 
or pronoun: 



48 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

1. An adjunct to the nominative; as, " That row of 
trees is grand." 

2. A term in apposition; as, " Love and love only is the 
loan for love." 

3. A predicate nominative; as, "I was eyes to the 
blind." 

4. A term set off parenthetically; as, " The carriage, as 
well as the horses, was injured;" also an excepted term set 
aside for a more important one; as, " Industry, and not mean 
savings, produces wealth." 

EXERCISE 26. 

Correct the following sentences in reference to the per- 
son and number of the verbs. 

1. The army of Xerxes were conquered. 

2. Young's Night Thoughts are a gloomy poem. 

3. No crop, no house, no fence, were left. 

4. Neither James nor Susan have been here. 

5. There were one or two present. 

6. The public is respectfully invited. 

7. Where is your slate and pencil. 

8. Is your father and mother at home. 

9. The chief part of the exports consist of silks. 

10. The Bible or Holy Scriptures are the best book. 

11. What have become of our friends? 

12. The Normans under which term is included the 
Danes. 

EXERCISE 27, 

Three of the following sentences are correct. Correct 
the others. 

1. I and you is going to the concert, ain't we? 

2. This sort of people is hard to please. 

3. Was there many at the party to-night? 

4. Which of these two books are the best? 

5. Let every boy answer for themselves. 

6. No rank, no fortune, no honor, is mine, 

7. The ends of each stick was pointed. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 49 

8. Neither the man nor woman were hurt. 

9. The girls and James are here. 

10. Every pupil should have their books. 

11. I came to see you because you was my friend. 

12. What signifies fair words without good deeds. 

EXERCISE 28. 

Four of the following sentences are correct. Correct 
the others. 

1. Neither he nor she is good to me. 

2. The bells of the city does not ring. 

3. Our boy come home from school early. 

4. Neither he nor his brothers is here. 

5. The birds builds their nests in the trees. 

6. The boys on the boat see the land. 

7. The irons were on the stove an hour ago 

8. Is the scissors in your drawer? 

9. Where was you last night? 

10. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

11. The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

12. To these belong the power of issuing licenses. 

EXERCISE 29. 

Four of the following are correct. Correct the others. 

1. Not a boy in the class knew their lessons. 

2. Each of the gentlemen offered their aid. 

3. Neither of the workmen had brought their tools. 

4. If any one wants it let him say so. 

5. He isn't one of those men who abandon their party. 

6. Each of the candidates were allowed a trial. 

7. Neither of the men was wounded. 

8. Has either of you boys a pencil? 

9. Our will and not our stars make us wise. 

10. Bread and milk is good food for children. 

11. To read and write were once a distinction. 

12. One or both the boys is in the garden. 



50 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

FORMS OF EXPRESSING VERBS. 

Besides the ordinary or common form already men- 
tioned, there are three other forms in which the verb may 
be wholly or partially expressed. 

1. The Emphatic Form denoting emphasis and ex- 
pressed in the present tense by do, doth, and does, in the past 
tense by did and didst; as, "He does go;" "You do go;" 
"He doth go;" "He did go;" "Thou didst go." 

2. The Solemn Form, an old common form still retained 
in religious worship and in poetry; as, "Thou art God;" 
"He doeth all things well." 

3. The Progressive Form used in all the modes and 
tenses. It is made by combining some part of the verb 
to be with the. present participle; as, "He is reading;' "He has 
been working;" "To be writing." 

A sentence is made interrogative by placing the verb or 
some part of it before the subject; as, "Know you the land?" 
"Has he been here?" 

A sentence is made negative by placing not after the 
verb or after its first auxiliary; as, "I know not;" "He could 
not have been here." 

PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb and partak- 
ing of the properties of a verb, and of an adjective or of a 
noun. 

Rem. The Participle is so called from its partaking of 
the properties of a verb and of those of an adjective or of 
a noun. 

It is not a verb, for it asserts nothing; therefore mode 
and tense do not belong to it. It simply denotes the con- 
tinuance or the completion of the being, act, or state rela- 
tively to the time denoted by the principal verb in the sen- 
tence where it is found. 

There are three participles: The Present, the Past, and 
the Compound. 

The Present Participle always ends in ing and denotes a 
continuance of the action, being, or state. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 5 1 

It may be used 

1. As an Adjective; as, "A running brook." 

2. As part of the Verb; as, "Brooks are running!' 

3. As a Noun; as, "Boys are fond of runni?ig." 

4. As a Noun with the government of a Verb; as, "Run- 
ning the-iine was a hard task." 

The Past, or Perfect Participle as it is often called, 
denotes the completion of the act, being, or state; as, seen, 
being seen, appointed, being appointed. 

Rem. This participle when derived from regular verbs 
ends in d or ed. It is often used as an adjective and some- 
times as a noun; as, "He died loved by all;" "Toll for the 
loved and lost." 

The Compound Participle denotes the completion of the 
act, being, or state, at or before the time indicated by the 
principal verb; as, "Having written the letter, he mailed it." 

Rein. This participle is formed by placing having or 
ng been before the perfect participle; as, Having loved; 
having been see?i. It may be used as a noun with a verbal 
force; as, "I am accused of having plotted treason." 

EXERCISE 30. 

Give the present, past, and compound participles of the 
following verbs: 

Rely, find, help, study, recite, inquire, answer, plow, cul- 
tivate, join, emulate, spell, grow, paint, resemble, hope, suf- 
fer, sit, see, go, come, lay, arrive, exhaust, enjoy, write, read, 
learn, ventilate, enchant, demand. 

Form sentences using any of the participles you have 
given as parts of the sentence. 

Examples — "Having written a page, I stopped;" "Being 
exhausted, I rested;" "I enjoy reading." 

CONJUGATION. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the correct expression in 
regular order of its modes, tenses, persons, and numbers. 

The Principal Parts of a verb are the Present Indicative, 



52 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the Past Indicative, the Present Participle, and the Past 
Participle. They are called Pri?icipal Parts because by their 
aid and that of the auxiliaries all forms of the verb may be 
given. 

A Synopsis of a verb is its variation in form through the 
different modes and tenses, in a single number and person. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB TO BE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present. Past. Pres. Participle. Past Participle. 

Be or am. Was. Being. Been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I am, i. We are, 

2. Thou art, 2. You are, 

3. He is; 3. They are. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been; 3. They have been. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was, 1. We were, 

2 Thou wast, • 2. You were, 

3. He was; 3. They were. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



55 







FUTURE TENSE. 


I. 

2. 

3- 


I shall be, 
Thou wilt be 
He will be; 


* 1. We shall be, 
, 2. You will be, 
3. They will be. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 


2. 

3- 


I shall have been, I. We shall have been, 
Thou wilt have been, 2. You will have been, 
He will have been; 3. They will have been. 






SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 






PRESENT TENSE. 


2. 

3- 


If I be, 
If thou be, 
If he be; 


1. If we be, 

2. If you be, 

3. If they be. 

PAST TENSE. 


2. 

3- 


If I were, 
If thou wert, 
If he were; 


1. If we were, 

2. If you were, 

3. If they were. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I had been, 1. If we had been, 

2. If thou hadst been, 2. If you had been, 

3. If he had been; 3. If they had been. 



1. I may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 

3. He may be; 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. We may be, 

2. You may be, 

3. They may be. 



PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been; 3. They may have been. 



54 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. 1 might be, I. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been; 3. They might have been. 
Note. — In reviews use the auxiliaries can, must, might, etc. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Be or do thou be. 2. Be you or do you be. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be. Present Perfect, To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being. Past, Been. Compound, Having been. 
SYNOPSIS OF VERB TO BE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
Present, I am. Past Perf., I had been. 

Pres. Perf., I have been. Future, I shall be. 

Past, I was. Fut. Perf., I shall have been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, If I be. Past, If I were. 

Past Perfect, If I had been. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may, can, or must be. 

Pres. Perf., 1 may, can, or must have been. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 55 

Past, I might, could, would, or should be. 

Past Perf., I might, could, would, or should have been. 

Note. — In the future tenses shall in the first person and 
will in the second and third are used to denote futurity. 

Will used in the first person and shall in the second and 
third denote determination or necessity. 

TO DO. 

Present — Sign of Emphasis or Interrogation. 
Singular Plural. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does; 3. They do. 

Past — Sign of Past Emphatic and Interrogative. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did; 3. They did. 

When used as a principal verb: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Do. Past, Did. Past Participle, Done. 

INFINITIVES. 
Present, To do. Present Perfect, To have done. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Doing. Past, Done. Compound, Having done. 

TO HAVE. 

Presc?it — Sign of Present Perfect Indicative. 
Singidar. Plural. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 

3. He has; 3. They have. 



56 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Past — Sign of Past Perfect Indicative. 

1. I had, i. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He had; 3. They had. 

Used as a principal verb: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Have. Past, Had. Past Participle, Had. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present, To have. Present Perfect, To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Having. Past, Had. Compound, Having had. 

CAN. 
Present — Sign of Pote?itial Present. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can; 3. They can. 

Past — Sign of Pote filial Past. 

1. I could, 1. We could, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. He could; 3. They could. 

MAY. 

Present — Sign of Potential Present. 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 

3. He may; 3. They may. 

Past — Sign of Potential Past. 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 

3. He might; 3. They might. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 57 

SHALL. 

Present — Sign of Indicative Future. 

1. I shall, 1. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt, 2. You shall, 

3. He shall; 3. They shall. 

Past — Sign of Potential Past. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should; 3. They should. 

WILL. 

Present — Sign of Indicative Future. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. You will, 

3. He will; 3. They will. 

Past — Sign of Pote?itial Past. 

1. I would, 1. We would, . 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would; 3. They would. 

When used as a principal verb: 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Will. Past, Willed. Past Participle, Willed. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present, To will. Present Perfect, To have willed. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Willing. Past, Willed. Compound, Having willed. 

MUST. 

Present — Sign of Potential Present. 

1. I must, 1. We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must; 3. They must. 



5* 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CONJUGATION OF THE ACTIVE VERS TO LOVE. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present, Love. Past, Loved. 

Pres. Participle, Loving. Past Participle, Loved. 





INDICATIVE MODE. 




PRESENT TENSE. 


I. 

2. 

3- 


Singular. Plural. 
I love, i. We love, 
Thou lovest, 2. You love, 
He loves; 3. They love. 




PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 


2. 

3- 


I have loved, 1. We have loved, 
Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 
He has loved; 3. They have loved, 




PAST TENSE. 


I. 

2. 

3- 


I loved, 1. We loved, 
Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 
He loved; 3. They loved. 



PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had loved, 1. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved; 3. They had loved. 



1. I shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 

3. He will love; 



FUTURE TENSE. 

1. We shall love, 

2. You will love, 

3. They will love. 



FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. You will have loved, 

3. He will have loved; 3. They will have loved. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 59 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If you love, 

3. If he love; 3. If they love. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I loved, 1. If we loved, 

2. If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 

3. If he loved; 3. If they loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I had loved, 1. If we had loved, 

2. If thou had loved, 2. If you had loved, 

3. If he had loved; 3. If they had loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love; 3. They may love. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved; 3. They may have loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love; 3. They might love. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have loved, 1. Wc might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved; 3. They might have loved. 



60 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

2. Love thou, or do thou love. Love ye, or do ye love. 
INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To love. Present Perfect, To have loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Compound, Having loved. 

Past, Loved. 

SYNOPSIS. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I love. Future, I shall love. 

Pres. Perf., I have loved. Future Perf., I shall have 
Past, I loved. loved. 

Past Perf., I had loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, If I love. Past Perfect, If I had loved. 

Past, If I loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may love. Past, I might love. 

Present Perfect, I may have Past Perfect, I might have 

loved. loved. 

Note. — In review, use can, must, could, etc. 

CONJUGATION OF THE PASSIVE VERB TO BE LOVED. 

The Passive Verb is formed by prefixing as an auxiliary 
the various forms of the Neuter Verb, to be, to the past par- 
ticiple of an active verb. The tense of the verb to be deter- 
mines the tense of the Passive Verb. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

i. I am loved, i. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved; 3. They are loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved; 3. They were loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved; 3. They had been loved. 

FUTURE TENSE. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved; 3. They will be loved. 

FUTURE PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I shall have been loved, 1. We shall have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt have been loved, 2. You will have been loved, 

3. He will have been loved; 3. They will have been 

loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we beloved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 



62 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. If I were loved, I. If we were loved, 

2. If thou wert loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he v/ere loved; 3. If they were loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. If I had been loved, 1. If we had been loved, 

2. If thou hadst been loved, 2. If you had been loved, 

3. If he had been loved; 3. If they had been loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may beloved; 3. They may be loved. 

PRESENT PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been 2. You may have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He may have been loved; 3. They may have been 

loved. 

PAST TENSE. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved; 3. They might be loved. 

PAST PERFECT TENSE. 

1. I might have been loved, I. We might have been 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 

loved, 2. You might have been 

3. He might have been loved; loved, 

3. They might have been 
loved. 
Note. — In reviews, use can, must, could, etc. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 63 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 
2. Be loved, or be thou loved. Be loved, or be ye loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present, To be loved. Pres. Perf., To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Being loved. Past, Loved. Compound, Having been 

loved. 

SYNOPSIS. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I am loved. Future, I shall be loved. 

Pres. Perf., I have been loved. Future Perf., I shall have 
Past, I was loved. been loved. 

Past Perf., I had been loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, If I be loved. Past Perf., If I had been 

Past, If I were loved. loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may be loved. Past, I might be loved. 

Present Perf., I may have Past Perf., I might have been 

been loved. loved. 

COORDINATE FORMS. 

Besides the active and passive forms already given, 
there are three other forms heretofore mentioned which 
may be classed as Coordinate Forms. They are the Pro- 
gressive, the Emphatic, and the Solemn forms of conju- 
gation. 



64 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I am loving. Future, I shall be loving. 

Pres. Perf., I have been loving. Fut. Perf., I shall have been 
Past, I was loving. loving. 

Past Perf., I had been loving. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, If I be loving. Past Perf., If I had been 

Past, If I were loving. loving. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present, I may be loving. Past, I might be loving. 

Pres. Perf., I may have been Past Perf., I might have been 
loving. loving. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present, To be loving. Pres. Perf., To have been 

loving. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present, Be thou loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present, Loving. Compound, Having been loving. 

EMPHATIC FORM. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present, I do love. Past, I did love. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present, If I do love. Past, If I did love. 

The Solemn Form employed in religious service and 
sometimes in poetry is used chiefly in the second and third 
persons singular. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 65 

It requires the verb or its auxiliary to end in st or est 
in the second person, and in eth in the third person; as, 
Thou lovest; Thou lovedst; Thou hast loved; Thou wilt 
love, etc., and He loveth. For a further discussion of this 
subject see article headed Forms of Verbs. 

EXERCISE 3«- 

Write a Synopsis of the active verbs Write, Think, and 
Row in the Indicative, Subjunctive, and Potential modes, 
first person and singular number. 

EXERCISE 32. 

Write a Synopsis of the passive verbs Am conquered, 
Am commanded, Am taught, in the Indicative, Subjunctive, 
and Potential modes, first person, singular number. 

EXERCISE 33- 

Write a Synopsis of the active verbs Write, Think, and 
Row, in the Progressive Form, Indicative, Subjunctive, and 
Potential modes, and third person, singular number. 

EXERCISE 34- 

State whether the following verbs are regular or irregu- 
lar, active, passive, or neuter, and give their mode, tense, 
person, number, and form of conjugation. Remember that 
a verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 

1. He had gone. If he be going. 

2. He has been assured. He assured me. 

3. Thou wilt have been loved. Is he loved? 

4. He might have built. Is he building? 

5. I could have gone. If he go. 

6. You must go. Can he go? Will he go? 

7. We might have arisen. He arose. 

8. He shall have bled. Is he bleeding? 

9. If he return. Though he return. 

10. He returns. Except he return. 

11. He has written. If he write. Go. Come. 

12. May he go? Listen. He will have gone. 

5 



66 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular Verbs are those which do not form their past 
tense and past participle by the addition of doredto the 
present; as, Do, did, done; Go, went, gone; Swim, swam, 
swum. These verbs are the core and pith of the English 
language. 

The following list contains the principal parts of most of 
the irregular verbs. The present participle is easily formed 
by adding ing to the root of the present, and if desired may 
be placed just before the past participle. Those verbs 
marked R have also a regular form. The form thought to 
be most used is placed first; but in some connections the 
second form given is preferable. 



Present. 
Abide, 
Am, 

Awake, 

Arise, 

Bear (bring forth), 

Bear (carry), 

Beat, 

Become, 
Befall, 

Beget, 

Begin, 

Behold, 

Bend, 

Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bet, 

Betide, 
Bid, 



A'. 



Past. 
abode, 
was, 

awoke, 

arose, 
bore, 
bare, 
bore, 

beat, 

became, 
befell, 

j begat, 

\ begot, 
began, 
beheld 
bent, R., 
bereft, R. 
besought 
bet, R., 
betided, 
betid, 
bid, 
bade, 



R. 



Past Participle. 
abode, 
been, 
awaked, 
awoke, 
arisen. 

born. 

borne. 

beat, 

beaten. 

become. 

befallen. 

begot, 

begotten. 

begun. 

beheld, R. 

bent, R. 

bereft, R. 

besought. 

bet, R. 

betided, 

betid. 

bid, 

bidden. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



67 



Bite, 


bit, 


j bitten, 
(bit. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Bless, 


j blessed, 
\ blest, 


j blessed, 
( blest. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Break, 


j broke, 
( brake, 


j broken, 
( broke. 


Bring, 
Cast, 


brought, 
cast, 


brought, 
cast. 


Catch, 
Chide, 


caught, R., 
chid, 


caught, R. 
j chidden, 
\ chid. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave (adhere), 


j cleft, 
( clave, 


cleaved. 


Cleave (split), 


( cleft, 
■< clove, 
( clave, 


( cleft, 
< cloven, 
( cleaved. 


Cling, 
Clothe, 


clung, 
j clothed, 
\ clad, 


clung, 
j clothed, 
t clad. 


Come, 


came, 


came. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 
Crow, 


crept, 
crew, R., 


crept, 
crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare, 


durst, R., 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealt, 


dealt. 


Dig, 
Do, 


dug, R., 
did, 


dug, R. 
done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamt, R , 


dreamt, R. 


Dress, 


drest, R., 


drest, R. 


Drive, 


drove, 


driven. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 


fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 


fed. 



68 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Feel, 


felt, 


felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 


fought. 


Find, 


found, 


found. 


Forbear, 


forbore, 


forborne. 


Forget, 


forgot, 


j forgot, 
( forgotten. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


Flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 


flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


Freeze, 


froze, 


frozen. 


Freight, 


freighted, 


fraught. 


Get, 


got, 


\ got, 
( gotten. 


Give, 


gave, 


given. 


Gild, 


gilt, 


gilt. 


Gird, 


girt, R., 


girt, R. 


Go, 


went, 


gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 


graven, R. 


Grind, 


ground, 


ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 


grown. 


Hang, 


hung, R., 


hung, R. 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Heave, 


hove, R., 


hoven, R. 


Hew, 


hewed, 


hewn, R. 


Hear, 


heard, 


heard. 


Hide, 


hid, 


j hidden, 
1 hid. 


Hit, 


hit, 


hit. 


Hold, 


held, 


\ held, 
( holden. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 


hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 


kept. 


Kneel, 


knelt, R., 


knelt, R. 


Knit, 


knit, 


knit. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lead, 


lead, 


lead. 


Lean, 


leant, R., 


leant, R. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



69 



Leap, 


leapt, R., 


leapt, R. 


Learn, 


learnt, R., 


learnt, R. 


Leave, 


left, 


left. 


Lend, 


lent, 


lent. 


Let, 


let, 


let. 


Lie (to recline), 


lay, 


lain. 


Light, 


lit, R., 


lit, R. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Load, 


loaded, 


laden, R. 


Mak'e, 


made, 


made. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pass, 


past, R., 


past, R. 


Pen (enclose), 


pent, R., 


pent, R. 


Plead, 


j plead, R., 
\ pled, 


j plead, R., 
\ pled. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, R., 


quit, R. 


Rap, 


j rapped, 
1 rapt, 


j rapped, 
( rapt. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Reave, 


reft, 


reft. 


Rend, 


rent, 


rent. 


Rid, 


rid, 


rid. 


Ride, 


rode, 


| ridden, 

( rode. 


Ring, 


j rung, 
1 rang, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


riven. 


Run, 


ran, 


run. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawn, R. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seethe, 


sod, R., 


sodden, R. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 



70 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaven. 


Shear, 


shore, R., 


shorn, R. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, R., 


shone, R. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


( sunk, 
( sank, 


sunk. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 


Sleep, 


slept, 


slept. 


Sling, 


slung, 


slung. 


Slit, 


slit, 


slit, R. 


Smell, 


smelt, R., 


smelt, R. 


Smite, 


smote, 


\ smitten, 
( smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sown, R. 


Speak, 


( spoke, 
\ spake, 


spoken. 


Speed, 


sped, R., 


sped, R. 


Spell, 


spelt, R., 


spelt, R. 


Spend, 


spent, 


spent. 


Spill, 


spilt, 


spilt. 


Spin, 


j spun, 
( span, 


spun. 


Spit, 


\ spit, 
( spat, 


{ spit, 
( spitten. 


Split, 


split, 


split. 


Spread, 


spread, 


spread. 


Spring, 


( sprang, 
( sprung, 


sprung. 


Spoil, 


spoilt, R., 


spoilt, R. 


Stay, 


staid, R., 


staid, R. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Stave, 


stove, R., 


stove, R. 


Steal, 


stole, 


stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Stride, 


j strode, 
\ strid, 


j stridden, 
( strode. 


String, 


strung, 


strung. 


Strive, ' 


strove, 


striven. 


Strow, 


strowed, 


j strowed, 
{ strown. 


Swear, 


j swore, 
( sware, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, R., 


sweat, R. 


Sweep, 


swept, 


swept. 


Swell, 


swelled, 


swollen, R. 


Swim, 


j swam, 
( swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 


swung, 


swung. 


Take, 


took, 


taken. 


Teach, 


taught, 


taught. 


Tear, 


tore, 


torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


throve, 


thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


j trod, 
( trode, 


trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxen, R. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wake, 


woke, 


woke. 


Wet, 


wet, R., 


wet, R. 


Whet, 


whet, R., 


whet, R. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


wrought, 


wrought. 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



72 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 35- 

Correct the following sentences: 

1. The cloth was weaved beautiful. 

2. I seen him run when you come. 

3. The boys fit most an hour. 

4. Were the cattle drove to pasture? 

5. We stringed the raspberries. 

6. She has took my pencil and broke it. 

7. The plastering has fell from the ceiling. 

8. Charles winned the prize. He done it good. 

9. The ship which hoved in sight springed a leak. 

10. I did not git my exercise wrote in time. 

11. The wind has blowed the fence down. 

12. He has brung some snow into the house. 

EXERCISE 36. 

1. Who learned you to spell? Jim done it. 

2. The stone smit him in the face. 

3. He laid down and ris much refreshed. 

4. The cars have ran off the track. 

5. I could of went. I seen some fine cattle. 

6. I and you is going to town, ain't we? 

7. His face has wore a sad look more'n a week. 

8. You hadn't ought to done so. You knowed better. 

9. I should of known him in France. 

10. I have saw a steamboat. I seen one. 

11. He laid abed till noon. Go and lay down. 

12. Set down a little bit. Are you going to go? 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



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74 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ADVERBS. 

An Adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of 
a verb, participle, adjective, or another adverb; as, "She 
sings sweetly;" " He runs rapidly;" "You look very pale;" 
" He did very well." 

Rem. 1. An adverb is equivalent to a phrase, consisting 
of a preposition and its object, limited by an adjective; as, 
" He walks rapidly" i. e., in a rapid manner ; "He lives there,'" 
i. e., in that place. 

Rem. 2. An adverb sometimes modifies a phrase or a 
clause; as, " He sailed nearly around the globe;" "The old 
man likewise came to the city." In the first sentence, ?iearly 
limits the phrase " around the globe," and in the second, 
likewise modifies the entire sentence. 

With respect to their meaning and use, adverbs may be 
divided into five main classes: Adverbs of Time, Place, 
Cause, Manner, and Degree. 

Adverbs of Time answer the questions When? How long? 
How often? Examples— After, again, ago, always, early, 
ever, forever, lately, now, often, seldom, soon, sometimes, 
when, while, etc. 

Rem. Such words as to-day, to-morrozv, to-night, etc., when 
used as modifiers, should not be classed as adverbs, but as 
nouns in the objective without a governing word, or as 
adverbial objectives. 

Adverbs of Place answer the questions Where? Whither? 
Whence? Examples — Above, below, down, up, hither, 
thither, here, there, where, etc. 

Rem. There is often used as an expletive to introduce a 
sentence, thus allowing the subject to follow the predicate; 
as, " There was a man whose name was John." 

Adverbs of Cause answer the questions Why? Where- 
fore? Examples — Therefore, then, why. 

Adverbs of Manner answer the question How? Examples 
— Well, badly, easily, foolishly, sweetly, certainly, verily, no, 
not, nowise, haply, probably, etc. 

Rem. Most adverbs of manner are formed by adding 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 75 

ly to adjectives and participles; as, careful, carefully ; united, 
unitedly. 

Adverbs of Degree answer the questions How much? 
How little? Examples — Enough, more, most, little, less, 
least, partly, only, scarcely, very, etc. 

Adverbs which show the manner of the assertion are 
called Modal Adverbs. They differ from other adverbs, in 
that they modify the whole sentence rather than some par- 
ticular word. This fact may be considered as a partial 
qualification of the definition of an adverb. Examples — 
Verily, truly, not, no, yes, etc. 

Adverbs used to ask questions may be called Interroga- 
tive Adverbs. 

Certain combinations of words used adverbially are called 
Adverbial Phrases. Examples — At length, at last, at best, 
at large, at all, at times, at hand, by and by, by chance, by 
turns, in truth, in case, from above, now and then, etc. 

Conjunctive Adverbs are those which serve both as 
adverbs and conjunctions; as, "I shall see you when I 
return." In this sentence when— at the time in which. At 
the time modifies "shall see" and in which modifies "return;" 
so that when is equivalent to a relative pronoun containing 
both antecedent and relative. The relative pronoun what is 
often used in this manner. 

Rem. The principal Conjunctive Adverbs are as, after, 
before, how, since, therefore, till, until, when, where, where- 
fore, while, and why. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Some Adverbs admit of comparison. Their comparative 
and superlative degrees are formed in the same manner as 
those of adjectives; as, soon, sooner, soonest; beautifully, 
more beautifully, most beautifully. 

The following adverbs like the adjectives to which they 
correspond are irregularly compared: Well, ill, badly, much, 
nigh, near, late, little, far, forth. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. The words yes and no as answers to questions are equiv- 
alent; the former, to a responsive sentence, affirmative; the 
latter, to a responsive sentence, negative. In use, they re- 
semble interjections and are, in fact, entire sentences in an 
elliptical form. They may be parsed as Independent Ad- 
verbs. 

2. Adverbs frequently become adjectives after passive 
and neuter verbs; as, " He reads better." Better is an adverb. 
" He looks better!' Better is an adjective. 

3. Certain words are used sometimes as adverbs and 
at other times as adjectives; as, " I can remain no longer;" 
" Let no man go out." In the first sentence, no is an adverb; 
in the second sentence, an adjective. 

4. Sometimes an adverb becomes a noun or an adjec- 
tive pronoun; as, " The best by far ;" "We have enough," 

ADVERBIAL USE OF "THE." 

The in such expressions as "The sooner the better," is 
not the definitive adjective the, but a case of the Anglo- 
Saxon demonstrative that. "The sooner" and "the bet- 
ter" should be parsed as adverbial phrases. So with the 
similar forms "The more the merrier," etc. 

EXERCISE 37- 

Select and classify the adverbs in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. And now a bubble bursts and now a world. 

2. For them no more the blazing hearth shall burn. 

3. She weeps not, but often and deeply she sighs. 

4. Thought once tangled, never cleared again. 

5. Dullness is ever apt to magnify. 

6. Where is my child? and echo answers, "Where?" 

7. Here rests his head upon the lap of earth. 

8. Come hither, my page. Onward he passed. 

9. Whence, and what art thou? I thence invoke thy 
aid. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. JJ 

10. This universally prevailed. Think much; speak 
little. 

11. We cannot wholly deprive them of merit. 

12. It was thought very strange. 

EXERCISE 38. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences; 

1. They lived very happily. 

2. Why do you look so sad? 

3. When spring comes the flowers will bloom. 

4. How rapidly the moments fly. 

5. He signed it then and there. 

6. I have read it again and again. 

7. He will do so no more. 

8. The mystery will be explained by and by. 

9. They were agreeably disappointed. 

10. He lives just over the hill yonder. 

11. Henceforth let no man fear that evil. 

12. Doubtless, ye are the people. 

THE PREPOSITION. 

A Preposition is a connective word expressing a relation 
of meaning between a noun or a pronoun and some other 
word; as, " The book lies before me onthe desk." 

Rem. 1. The noun or pronoun depending on the prepo- 
sition is said to be governed by it and is in the objective 
case. 

Rem. 2. The equivalents of a noun before which a 
preposition can be placed are: 1. An infinitive; "None knew 
thee fotfto love thee." 2. A present participle; " His cour- 
age in rescuing the child deserves praise." 3. A clause; 
" This will depend on who they are." 

Rem. 3. Two prepositions are frequently combined; as, 
" He zz.mo.from over the sea." In such cases parse the two 
words as one complex preposition. 

Rem. 4. Sometimes the object of the preposition is 
omitted; as, "The boys went out!' In such cases parse the 
preposition as an adverb. 



yS AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 5. When the relations between objects of thought 
are so obvious that they need no expression, the preposi- 
tions are usually omitted; as, "I came home yesterday;" 
" He is worth a million;" "The bridge is a mile long." In 
such cases the noun or pronoun is said to be in the objective 
without a governing word, or it may be parsed as an adver- 
bial objective. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Study the following list and notice between what words 
each preposition shows a relation. 

A=at, on, or in; Peter said I go a fishing. 

Aboard; Aboard ships dull shocks are felt. 

About; They were crowding about him. 

Above; Above your voices rises a wail of woe. 

According to; Proceed accordi?ig to law. 

Across; Their way was across a meadow. 

After; After life's fever he sleeps well. 

Against; Uplift against the sky your waves. 

Along; I hearthe waves bellowing along the shore. 

Amid, amidst; A lark reared her brood amid the corn. 

Among, amongst; He was foremost amo?ig them. 

Around; I hear around me. cries of dissent. 

As to; As to the cargo it is safe. 

At; She is at church. The bell rings at noon. 

Athwart; Athwart the waste, shines the light. 

Before; Who shall go before them? 

Below; The rapids are a mile below us. 

Beneath; The stairs creaked beneath his tread. 

Beside; I sat beside her on the lawn. 

Besides; There is nothing besides this manna. 

Between; The town is situated between two lakes. 

Betwixt; The waters roll betwixt him and the hill. 

Beyond; He has gone beyo?id the sea. 

But = except; He has nothing but his sword. 

By; Strength came by toiling at the oar. 

Concerning; The Lord hath spoken concerning us. 

Down; Till I wandered down the valley. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 79 

During; He staid at home during the war. 

Ere; The Nile flowed ere its wonted season. 

Except; Are they all gone except yowl 

For; I looked up for a. moment. 

From; 'Tis like a leaf torn from romance. 

In; Late in life, he began life in earnest. 

Into; He gazed i?ito the deep gloom. 

Notwithstanding; He was proud notwithstanding 'his pov- 
erty. 

Of; 'Tis the middle watch of a. summer's night. 

Off; The vessel was becalmed off the coast. 

On; He stands on a rock. I leave on Monday. 

Out of; Nothing was stirring out of doors. 

Over; The billows have gone over me. 

Past; We drove past the house. 

Round; A shoreless ocean rolled round the globe. 

Save; All is silent save the dropping rain. 

Since; I have worked here since noon. 

Till, until; Not till morning did they appear. 

Through; Then stepped she down through field and town. 

Throughout; There was fear throughout the city. 

To; Let the old tree go down to earth. 

Toward, towards; He turned toward the east. 

Under; He stands free under the vault of heaven. 

Unto; Verily I say unto you. 

Up; He sailed up the river. 

Upon; They climbed upon the roof. 

With; The sky was red with flame. 

Within; The nobler nature zvithin him stirred. 

Without; The morning broke without a sun. 

Rem. 1. The following prepositions less commonly used 
may be added to the foregoing list: Abaft, alongside, aloft, 
afore, adown, aloof, aneath, aslant, astern, atwceti, atwixt, despite, 
inside, outside, maugre, minus, plus, per, sans, underneath, versus, 
vice, as for, along with, despite of , from among, from before, from 
betwixt, from bctzveen, from off, from under, off of, over against, 
round about, hit for and the participial forms excepting, regard- 



SO AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing, bating, touching, respecting, etc., when they are followed 
by objects. 

Rem. 2. Care should be taken to select such preposi- 
tions as express the relations intended. Examples — Among 
and amongst are applicable to more than two objects; as, 
"He divided the estate among the four brothers." Betwixt 
and between are applicable to two only; as, "He divided 
the money betwee?i the two beggars." 

During should be used when the action continues through 
a given period; as, "He teaches durifig the day." In, at, or 
within are used when the action does not continue through 
the given period; as, "I spoke of that in my speech last 
night;" "I will pay you within the year." 

(9/denotes possession of a quality or thing; as, "He is a 
friend of mine." To denotes the quality or thing directed 
toward something else; as, "He has been a friend to me." 

In is used before the names of countries and cities. At 
is used before the names of small places; as, "She lives in 
Chicago, but she is visiting at Mont Clare." 

Of should be used after boast and brag; as, "He boasts 
of his strength and he brags of his courage." 

Upon should follow bestow and depend ; as, "He bestows 
favors upon his friends;" " He depends upon his relatives." 

From should follow differ and disse?it ; as, "I differ from 
your ideas and dissent from your opinions." 

In should follow confide ; as, "I confide in you." 

(9/should be used when we are disappointed in obtain- 
ing a thing; as, "I was disappointed of money." In when 
we are disappointed in the quality of a thing, or in the char- 
acter of a person; as, "I am disappointed in that mower;" 
"I am disappointed in Mr. Johnson." 

With denotes the instrument, by the cause; with denotes 
the immediate, by the remoter means; as, "He was killed 
with a knife;" "He died by violence;" "He walks with a 
staff by moonlight." 

We agree with a person, in a thing, upon some place. 
We are familiar with things, and they are familiar to us. 
We reconcile friends with one another, and to their fate; we 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



vest authority in a person, and we invest a person with 
authority. 

We long for and after ; marry to; intermarry with; are 
offended at a thing, with a person; are pleased with and 
prejudiced against; we profit by ; we release from; relieve 
of and from; sin against, and strip of; we are in sympathy 
with, have sympathy for, weary of, and are worthy of. 

Dictionaries, careful reading, and close observation are 
the sources from which we may learn the uses of preposi- 
tions. 

EXERCISE 39- 
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: 

1. Will you go with me into the garden? 

2. In my Father's house are many mansions. 

3. We went over the river, through the fields, into the 
woods. 

4. I am not satisfied as to that affair. 

5. The Rhone flows out from among the Alps. 

6. He went from St. Louis across the plains. 

7. Light moves in straight lines in all directions. 

8. He went aboard the ship and into the cabin. 

9. Under her torn hat glowed the wealth of beauty. 

10. He goes on Sunda}/ 1 to the church. 

11. He starts from his dreams at the blast of the horn. 

12. There is a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. 

EXERCISE 40. 
Parse the prepositions in the following sentences: 

1. The thunders bellowed over the waste of waters. 

2. A murmuring whisper thro' the nunnery ran. 

3. But on the hill the golden-rod, and the aster in the 
• wood, 

4. And the yellow sunflower by the brook 

5. In autumn beauty stood. 

6. Till fell the frost from the clear cold heaven, 

7. As falls the plague on men. 

8. And the brightness of their smile was gone 



82 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. From woodland, glade, and glen. 

10. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

11. Helon knelt beside a stagnant pool in the wilderness. 

12. Breathes there a man with soul so dead? 

EXERCISE 41. 

Correct the misuse of prepositions "in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. Divide the peaches among the two boys. 

2. Divide the cherries between the five girls. 

3. I will pay you during the year. 

4. His residence is at Chicago, but he is now in Austin. 

5. He boasts upon his strength and brags upon his 
courage. 

6. I differ with your ideas, I dissent to your belief. 

7. By all our troubles, let us confide on God. 

8. The book was left out from the package. 

9. John Jones was married with Helen Smith. 

10. I am offended at him, I am angry with his words. 

11. They are to church, I wish they were to home. 

12. He is dependent on his parents by support. 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect words, phrases, 
and sente?ices. 

Examples — "James and John were drowned, but Harry 
was saved;" " He ran into the house a?id up stairs." In the 
first sentence "and" connects words and "but" connects sen- 
tences. In the second sentence "and" connects two phrases. 

Rem. 1. Two conjunctions are sometimes combined, 
making one complex conjunction; as, " You talk as if you 
were an idiot." 

Rem. 2. Conjunctions sometimes merely introduce sen-, 
tences; as, "■And it came to pass in those days;" "That the 
times are hard is undeniable." 

CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are divided into three classes: Copulative, 
Disjunctive, and Alternative. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 83 

Copulative Conjunctions join on members denoting an 
additio?i, conseqimice, cause, or supposition. 

Study the following list and point out the terms con- 
nected by each conjunction. 

And; Cold and hunger are there. 

As; Speak as you. think. 

Because; He is ignorant because he is idle. 

Consequently; He is ill consequently )\e cannot come. 

For; Rise; for it is day. 

If; I shall go if it is fair. 

Since; They submit, since they must. 

Than; He is older than I. 

That; He studies that he may learn. 

Then; You know the rules; then obey them. 

Disjunctive Conjunctions join on members opposed in 
meaning. Observe the following list and notice what words 
and sentences are connected. 

Although, though; Though coarse, it is good. 

But; I go, but I return. 

Except; Except he do this, he must die. 

Lest; Ye shall not eat it, lest ye die. 

Notwithstanding; He is rich, notwithstandi?ig\\e'\s shabby. 

Or; I may study medicine or law.' 

Provided; He will do it, provided you pay him. 

Save; All slept save she who bore them. 

Still; He has faults, still he is popular. 

Unless; I will not let thee go unless thou bless me. 

Alternative Conjunctions are conjunctions used in pairs, 
one referring or answering to the other. The antecedent 
term is often an adverb. Notice the following: 

Both — and; He is both learned and wise. 

As — as; I am as old as you. 

As — so; As it was then so it is now. 

So — as; He is not so tall as I. 

So — that; It was so cold that I nearly froze. 

Either — or; I will either send it or bring it. 

Neither — nor; Neither hath this man sinned nor his par- 
ents. 



84 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Not only — but also; He was not only rich but also gener- 
ous. 

Whether — or; I care not whether he goes or stays. 

EXERCISE 42. 

Correct the misuse of conjunctions jn the following sen- 
tences: 

1. This is the same with that. 

2. You are too conceited so as you can not be popular. 

3. Neither borrow or lend umbrellas. 

4. I could not see nor hear him. 

5. They told us how that it happened. 

6. This is the reason that I remained. 

7. Silver is both mined in Mexico and Peru. 

8. Nobody knows if the war will end soon. 

9. I have seldom seen such a tall man. (So tall a.) 

10. She is such a good woman. 

11. I will see if it rains or not (whether or not) 

12. I demand no place or pension. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

An Interjection is a word used to express some sudden 
or strong emotion of the mind; as, Ah! ha! fie! farewell! 

Words commonly used as other parts of speech and 
sometimes whole phrases and sentences when abruptly 
uttered, become interjections. 

The interjection is parsed by simply naming it. It has 
no grammatical relation to other parts of speech and no 
connection with the rest of the sentence. 

ABBREVIATED PARSING. 

The attentive student has noticed or will soon notice that 
some of the grammatical forms we have mentioned do not 
affect the construction of sentences. 

Hereafter we will enumerate only such forms as affect 
the construction, omitting whatever may be understood in 
the terms of the statement; as, singular for "singular num- 
ber," indicative for "indicative mode," etc. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pronouns 



f Class 



Person 



Case 



The forms to be enumerated are as follows: 

f N h i Singular or Plural. 
^r I u '( {Number in proper nouns omitted.) 

ouns -j > ]Sf om i na tive, Possessive, or Objective. 

*- { {As denoted by their form or use.) 

Omitted: Class, Person, and Gender as net affecting the 
construction. When a noun is in the second or third person 
the fact may be stated. 

Personal, Relative, Interrogative, 

or Adjective. 

In Personal pronouns; in Relative 

pronouns of the first or second 

( persons only. 

Number — Singular or Plural. 

n j (In Personal pronouns of the third 
Gender A . *\ , 

( person singular only. 

Nominative or Objective as denoted 

by its use; Possessive as shown by 

( its form. 

Omitted: Person in all but the personal pronouns; in 
relatives mention only the first and the second persons. 
Gender in all but personal pronouns of the third person 
singular. 

{Class — Definitive or Descriptive. 
Comparison — If Comparative or Superlative. 
Qrr- j Modify what noun or pronoun? If 
( in predicate, state the fact. 

Omitted: Subdivisions of classes; Degree, if positive. 

Form — Regular or Irregular. 

Nature — Active, Passive, or Neuter. (If active, 
transitive or intransitive.) 
Verbs <i Mode — Indicative, Potential, etc. 
Tense — Present, Past, etc. 
Person — First, Second, or Third. 
Number — Singular or Plural. 

rClass — Time, place, cause, etc. 
» , . J Comparison — If Comparative or Superlative. 

1 r)ffi r p j ^ simple, modify what? 

I \ If conjunctive, connect what? 

Prepositions — Relation between what words? 
Conjunctions — Words, phrases, or sentences connected? 



86 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

MODEL FOR ORAL PARSING. 

When we go forth in the morning we lay a moulding 

hand upon our destiny. 

When is a conjunctive adverb connecting the sentences 

"We lay" and "We go." 

we is a personal pronoun, first person, plural, subject of 

"go." ♦ 

go is a verb, irregular, active, intransitive, indicative, 

present, first, plural, agreeing with "we." 

forth is an adverb of place modifying "go." 

in is a preposition showing relation between " go " and 

" morning." 

the is a definitive adjective limiting " morning." 
morning is a noun, objective, governed by " in." 
we is a pronoun, personal, first, plural, subject of "lay." 
lay is a verb, irregular, active, transitive, indicative, pres- 
ent, first, plural, agreeing with "we." 

a is a definitive adjective limiting " hand." 
moulding is a descriptive adjective modifying " hand." 
hand is a noun, objective, singular, object of " lay." 
upo?i is a preposition showing relation between" lay" and 

" destiny." 

our is a personal pronoun, first, plural, possessive of 

" destiny." 

destiny is a noun in the objective, governed by " upon." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



87 



MODEL FOR WRITTEN PARSING. 

Short-lived likings may be bred by a glance from fickle 
eyes. 



Word. 


Class. 


Grammatical 
Forms. 


Office. 


Short-lived... 

likings 

may be bred. . 

by 


Des. Adj. 

Noun. 

Verb. 

Preposition. 

Def. Adj. 

Noun. 

Preposition. 

Des. Adj. 
Noun. 


PL, Nom. 

Irreg., Pass., 
Poten.,Pres., 
Third, PL 

Sing., Obj. 
PL, Obj. 


Modifies " likings." 
Subject of " may be bred." 

Agrees with " likings." 




between "maybe bred" 

and "glance." 
Limits "glance." 
Object of " by." 


glance 


fickle 


" glance " and " eyes." 
Modifies " eyes." 
Object of " from." 





WORDS VARIOUSLY CLASSIFIED. 

The same word may belong to different parts of speech, 
but the office it fills where it is placed determines its classi- 
fication. 

The Normal use of a word is its ordinary use. 
The Abnormal or exceptio?ial use is a variation from its 
ordinary meaning and classification. 

The Idiomatic use is a use peculiar to the language where 
it is found. 

A .Definitive adjective: "A tall man." 

Preposition: " I go a fishing." 

After Preposition: " He ran after me." 

Adverb: " He left soon after!' 

Conjunctive adverb: " He came after I left." 

Above Preposition: " He soars above the clouds." 

Adverb: "Thou that rollest above!' 
Adjective: "The above remarks." 

All Noun: "That is his all!' 

Adjective: "All men say this." 
Adjective pronoun: u All cried aloud." 
Adverb: " We were left all alone." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Alike Adjective: " The girls look alike!' 

Adverb: "I am alike pleased with both." 

Any Adjective: "Have you any complaints?" 

Adjective pronoun: " If any, speak." 
Adverb: " Are you any better? " 

As Adverb (simple): "As tall;" "As dark," etc. 

Adverb (conjunctive): "He spoke as we en- 
tered." 
Conjunction: "As he was ambitious I slew him." 
"As" is used as a relative after suck, many, and same, and 
when so used is the equivalent of which. 

It is used as an index of apposition; " He shipped as 
second mate;" " He was chosen as captain." 

It is also used as part of a compound preposition; "As 
to that;" " As for me," etc. 

As follows may be parsed as an adverbial phrase, or the 
pronoun it may be supplied as the grammatical subject of 
" follows." 

Below Preposition: " Stand below me." 

Adverb: " Go below." 

Noun: " I came from beloiv." 

Adjective: " He is in one of the offices below." 

Best Adjective pronoun: " Do your best." 

Adjective: " Covet the best gifts." 

Adverb: " Who can best work can best agree." 

Better Noun: "They scorn their betters." 

Verb: " Love betters what is best." 

Adjective: " The gray mare is the better beast." 

Adverb: " Never was monarch better served." 

But Preposition: "All but \u.rr\ had fled." 

Conjunction: " I go, but I return." 
Adverb: " 'Tis but a little faded flower." 
Part of Compound Preposition: "He would 
steal but for the law." 
"But" is sometimes used with the force of a negative 
relative, when it has negative correlations; as, " There is no 
fireside howsoe'er defended, but has one vacant chair." — 
Lojig fellow \ 

In this sentence "but" has the force of that not. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 89 

Each Adjective: "Each man took one." 

Adjective pronoun: "Each went his way." 
Each other. ."They resemble each other." 

Parse "each" as an adjective pronoun in apposition with 
"they," or parse "each other" as a compound adjective pro- 
noun. 
Enough Noun: " He has enough." 

Adjective: " I have trouble enough." 

Adverb: " He has been punished enough." 
Fast Adjective: "A fast horse." 

Adverb: " He can run fast." 
" Fast " represents quite a large class of monosyllabic 
adjectives which are often used as adverbs; as, "to work 
hard;" " to speak loud;" " to rise high" etc. 

In early English the adverbial form was marked by a 
final e ; as, hard (adjective), harde (adverb). When this 
final e became silent and was dropped, the two forms became 
identical. 
Fast Noun: " He appointed a. fast." 

Verb: " Thou didst fast and weep." 
For Preposition: " He works for me." 

Part of Compound Preposition: "As for me, 
I will remain." 
Full Noun: " The fzdl of the moon." 

Verb: " They full cloth at the factory." 

Adjective: "A full measure." 

Adverb: " Full many a flower." 
Like Noun: " Like produces like." 

Verb: " I like peaches and cream." 

Adjective: "We have like chances." 

Preposition: " He runs like a deer." 
More Adjective pronoun: " Have you any more? " 

Adjective: " We need more money." 

Adverb: " Sleep no more." 
Any more. . .Adverb: " I will not do so any more." 
Near Adjective: " The near approach of winter." 

Adverb: " Come near!' 

Preposition: " He sat near me," 



gO AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Needs Noun: " His needs are few." 

Verb: " He needs to go." 

Adverb: " He needs must go." 
Now Noun: " Eternity is an unending now" 

Adverb: " Go to bed now." 

Conjunction: "Now Barabbaswas a robber." 
So Adverb: "Why are you so angry?" 

Conjunction: "He was not there so we went 
away." 
That Adjective: "That house;" "That man." 

Adjective pronoun: "This is yours, that is mine." 

Relative pronoun: "The man that owns it is 
here." 

Conjunction: " We know that Mars has moons." 
The Adjective: "The stars;" "The moon." 

Adverb: "The more, the better." 
When "the" modifies an adverb it forms with it an 
adverbial phrase; as, " I like you the better for that." 
Till Noun: " The money was in the till." 

Verb: " Farmers till the ground." 

Preposition: " Stay till next Monday." 

Conjunctive adverb: " Stay till I return." 
What Relative pronoun: "He deserves whathe earns." 

Interrogative pronoun: " What did you say?" 

Adjective: " What ship is that?" 

Adverb: "What by cold and what by hunger, 
all died." 

Interjection: " What! Is thy servant a dog?" 
While Verb: " We while away the time thus." 

Noun: " I love to steal a while away." 

Adverb: " I will watch while you sleep." 
Worth Noun: " Worth makes the man." 

Adjective: " A ring worth forty ducats." 

Preposition: "To reign is worth ambition." 
Yet Adverb: " Our country yet remains." 

Conjunction: " He is disappointed yet not dis- 
couraged." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. Ql 

Rem. 1. These examples might be extended to a far 
greater number; but enough have been given to convince 
the student that 

Words must be parsed according to the office they perform, 
where given, regardless of their use in other se?itences. 

Rem. 2. Nouns connected, frequently form a compound, 
which, though composed of distinct parts, must be consid- 
ered as a single thing; as, "Three dollars a day and board 'is 
all I ask." 

Rem. 3, Phrases, inseparable in thought, may be formed 
by uniting prepositions with one another, or with other 
parts of speech. 

1. A verb and a preposition; as, to cast up, to buy off, to 
bring to, to buy over, to cut out, etc. The preposition should be 
considered an inseparable part of the verb; but it may be 
parsed as an adverb. 

2. A preposition and an adverb; as, on high, at large, in 
earnest, at last, etc. These are adjective or adverbial phrases. 

3. Prepositions with prepositions; as, over a?id over, by 
a?id by, i?i and out, etc. Inseparable phrases, adverbial. 

4. Noun, preposition, and noun; as, day by day, face to 
face, stride by stride, cheek by jowl, etc. 

If we supply any ellipsis we destroy the expressiveness 
of these phrases. They are best classed as inseparable 
phrases, adjective or adverbial, according to the office they 
perform. 

EXERCISE 43- 

Parse the words in the following examples: 

1. A noble income, nobly expended, is no common 
sight. 

2. Human foresight often leaves its proudest pos- 
sessor only a choice of evils. 

3. Applause is the spur of noble minds; the end and 
aim of weak ones. 

4. Grant graciously what you cannot refuse safely. 

5. Most men know what they hate; few, what they 
love. 



Q2 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

G. He who openly tells his friends all that he thinks of 
them, must expect that they will tell his enemies much that 
they do not think of him. 

7. That nations sympathize with their monarch's glory, 
that they are improved by his virtues, and that the tone of 
morals rises high, when he that leads the band is perfect; 
are truths admitted with exultation, and felt with honest 
pride. 

EXERCISE 44. 

1. Highly elated with his good fortune, he returned 
home. 

2. Saving carefully the fruits of his labor, he, at length, 
was able to buy a farm. 

3. A pretended patriot, he impoverished his country. 

4. To conquer Gaul was Caesar's purpose in this cam- 
paign. 

5. That the king can do no wrong is admitted with 
reluctance. 

6. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

7. The time must come when the ivy will twine around 
these fallen columns. 

8. A life of prayer is the life of heaven. 

9. Art thou that traitor angel, art thou he? 

10. He was elected governor by a large majority. 

11. Ye, therefore, who love mercy, teach your sons to 
love it too. 

12. He who had no mercy on others is now reduced to a 
condition which may excite the pity of his most implacable 
enemy. 

EXERCISE 45- 

1. At sea, anything that breaks the monotony of the 
surrounding expanse attracts attention. 

2. She is handsome, but she has the misfortune of know- 
ing it. 

3. These opportunities improved as they should be must 
produce the desired results. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 93 

4. Ambition makes the same mistake concerning power, 
that avarice makes concerning wealth. 

5. The truly great consider first, how they may gain the 
approbation of God. 

6. Freely to give reproof and thankfully to receive it, 
is an indispensable condition of true friendship. 

7. I was not aware of his being the preacher. 

8. Where was it when winds and clouds were its only 
visitors, and when the sun and blue heaven by day, and the 
moon and stars by night, alone looked down and beheld it, 
the same as they behold it now? 

9. In avoiding one error do not fall into another. 

10. By consulting the best authors, he became learned. 

11. Draw not the bow before having fixed thy arrow. 

12. Stretching from horizon to horizon, it came, pouring 
its green massive waters onward. 

EXERCISE 46. 

1. Success being now hopeless, preparations were made 
for retreat. 

2. It were indeed a bold task to venture to draw into 
comparison the relative merits of Jay and Hamilton. 

3. This court was composed of three officers, than 
whom, none are more distinguished in our naval service. 

4. To be a foreigner was always in England a reason 
for dislike. 

5. O solitude! where are the charms that sages have 
seen in thy face? 

6. Ill fared it then with Roderick Dhu. 

7. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State. 

8. There, swinging wide at her moorings, lay the Som- 
erset, British man-of-war. 

9. Me he restored, him he hanged. 

10. Tell me not in mournful numbers, life is but an 
empty dream. 

11. Ill blows the wind that profits nobody. 

12. Having ridden up to the spot the enraged officer 
struck the unfortunate man dead with a single blow of his 
sword. 



94 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

SYNTAX. 

Syntax is that part of grammar which treats of the 
classification and arrangement of sentences. 

A sentence is a combination of words expressing a com- 
plete thought; thus, " The snow melts;" " Man is mortal;" 
" They gave it to the church;" "She came to the party;" 
"Evils which cannot be cured must be endured." 

A phrase is a combination of words not making complete 
sense, but performing a distinct office in the structure of 
a sentence; as, " to the house;" " with the boy;" " running a 
race." 

A discourse is a series of sentences on the same subject, 
arranged in logical order. 

A paragraph is a series of sentences on the same branch 
of a subject. 

An element is one of the component parts of a sentence. 

Analysis is the separation of a sentence into its elements. 

Synthesis is the construction of a sentence from words. 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

Sentences are classified with respect to Form and Use. 

With respect to Form, sentences are Simple, Complex, and 
Compound. 

A Simple Sentence expresses but a single thought; as, 
"Birds fly;" "Who will go?" "Speak low;" "How wild 
he looks! " 

A Complex Sentence consists of a simple sentence, modi- 
fied as to some of its parts by one or more subordinate sen- 
tences; as, " Snow falls zvhen winter comes ;" "He zvho will 
not work, must not eat;" " I hear that you are going to school." 

Rem. The sentences forming a complex sentence are 
called clauses. In the sentence " I will leave when the train 
comes," " I will leave " is the principal clause, and " when 
the train comes" is the subordinate clause. 

A Compound Sentence consists of two or more simple 
or complex sentences united by connectives. Examples — 
" Spring comes and the flowers bloom;" " Though he slay 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 95 

me, yet will I trust him;" "The reply of the queen who 
came to test the wisdom of Solomon was, that the half had 
not been told her, and the words of the sacred historian 
fully justify her assertion." 

Rem. The simple or complex sentences of which com- 
pound sentences are composed are called members. They 
are numbered first, second, third, etc., according to their 
place in the sentence. 

EXERCISE 47- 

Classify the following sentences in regard to Form: 

1. The merchant sold damaged goods. 

2. My desire is that you may succeed. 

3. Lines which are drawn parallel to each other never 
meet. 

4. I was hungry and ye gave me no meat. 

5. He recognized Henry's voice. 

6. The parlor fire which burns brightly gives a cheerful 
light. 

7. When he rose, every sound was hushed, and when he 
spoke, every eye was fixed upon him. 

8. On a sunny bank buttercups are bright. 

9. Money which is easily acquired is, for the most part, 
easily spent. 

10. He wrote to the friend of his sister. 

11. Will you tell me why you are sad? 

12. Submission and obedience are the lessons of her life, 
and peace and happiness are her reward. 

With respect to Use, sentences are divided into four 
classes: Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative, and Exclama- 
tive. 

A Declarative Sentence is one used to affirm or deny 
something; as, " I hear;" " I do not see." 

An Interrogative Sentence is one used to ask a question; 
as, " Are you in earnest?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one that expresses a com- 
mand or an entreaty; as, "Come, when the heart beats high 
and warm;" "Put money into thy purse." 



9 6 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



An Exclamative Sentence is one that expresses a 
thought in an exclamatory manner; as, "Oh! that this 
would pass! " " How grand is the scene! " 



EXERCISE 48. 

Classify the following sentences according to their Use: 

1. They tell us, sir, that we are weak. 

2. But when shall we be stronger? 

3. Sir, we are not weak if we make a proper use of the 
means God has given us. 

4. The battle is not to the strong alone. 

5. The war is inevitable and let it come. 

6. Our brethren are already in the field. 

7. Why stand we here idle? 

8. Is life so dear or peace so sweet, as to be purchased 
at the price of chains and slavery? 

9. Forbid it, Almighty God. 

10. I know not what course others may take. 

11. But as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. 

12. And the fellow calls himself a painter! 



CHART V. THE PHRASE. 



Phrase, 



Form 



Use 



fPrepositional. 
A Participial, 
[infinitive. 

{Substantive. 
Adjective. 
Adverbial. 
Independent. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



91 



3 — ■ 





<u 


<u 


£«■-•« 






> 




m 
o 
z 


CO cu 


' Objecti 
Adjecti 
Adverb 
Connec 

s Indepei 








H 








z 






•52 


m 






Q 


E 






1 




^ 




<o 


















> 




f- 1 




H 




Z 


<" ai 


< 
E 


e. 

lex. 

ound. 


w 
►J 
W 


rative. 
ogativ 
ative. 
mativi 




Simpl 
Comp 
Comp 


Decla 
Interr 
Imper 
Excla 



98 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ELEMENTS OF THE SENTENCE. 

The Elements of a sentence are the parts that enter into 
its composition. These elements are Principal or Subordinate. 
The Principal elements are the Subject and Predicate. 

The Subject represents that of which something is stated, 
and is always a noun or its equivalent. The equivalents of 
a noun are: 

1. A pronoun; as, "He was the father of his country;" 
" The weary are at rest;" "Who is he?" 

2. An infinitive or a participle; as, " To be contents his 
natural desire;" "Seeing is believing." 

3. A substantive phrase; as, "To believe o?i me is life 
eternal;" "Learning a language well is difficult " 

4. A substantive clause; as, "That the earth is spherical, 
was not believed." 

The Predicate tells what is stated of the subject. It con- 
sists of a predicate verb (word or words), but in order to 
make a complete statement, it is often necessary to employ 
a complement. 

Transitive verbs require an object complement; as, " He 
saved the nation." 

The object of a transitive verb maybe any of the equiva- 
lents of a noun; as, "We honor him;" "We honor the 
brave;" "Boys like to play ball ;" "They stopped building 
the wall." Talleyrand said, that tlie purpose of language is to 
conceal thought. 

Neuter and passive verbs may take as a complement a 
predicate nominative or a predicate adjective ; as, " Knowledge 
is power;" "The mountain is bleak;" "She seems wise;" 
" He was thought wise" 

The Subordinate elements of a sentence are called 
Adjuncts or Modifiers. They are Objective, Adjective, Adver- 
bial, Connective, and Independent. 

Rem. The predicate nominative and predicate adjective 
are considered parts of the predicate, and not as subordinate 
elements. 

The Objective element has already been noticed. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 99 

An Adjective element may be a word, a phrase, or a 
clause. 

As a word, the Adjective element may be: 

1. An adjective; as, " The misty morning dawned." 

2. An appositive noun or pronoun; as, " Webster the 
statesman opposed disunion;" "I saw the man -to whom 
you mentioned." 

3. A possessive noun or pronoun; as, "The watchdog's 
honest bark;" "Their names, their years, spelled by the 
unlettered muse." 

An adjective phrase may be, in form, prepositional or 
participial; thus, " The accursed greed for gold;" " He, beifig 
wounded, was borne to the rear." 

The adjective clause is always introduced by a relative 
pronoun or by a conjunctive adverb; thus, " He that runs 
may read;" " I remember the house where I was born." 

The subject may be modified not only by one, but by 
many adjective elements. 

Adjective elements are used to modify not only the sub- 
ject, but also a noun in any part of the sentence. 

The predicate verb is modified by Adverbial elements. 

An Adverbial element may be a word, a phrase, or a 
sentence. 

As a word an Adverbial element may be : 

An adverb; as, " They fought bravely." 

An indirect object; as, " Give me a book." 

An adverbial objective; as, "It is six feet long." 

An infinitive; as, " He labors to learn." 

An adverbial phrase may be, in form, prepositional or 
participial; thus, "He acted with great discretion ;" "They 
stood facing the foe ." 

An adverbial clause is always introduced by a conjunctive 
adverb, or by a subordinate conjunction; thus, " Come when 
the heart beats high and warm;" " Ye follow me because of the 
loaves and fishes!' 

The predicate verb may be modified by any number of 
combinations of adverbial elements. An adverbial element 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



may be an adjunct not only of a verb, but also of an adjec- 
tive or an adverb. 

In like manner it may be inferred that a noun comple- 
ment may take any of the modifications of a noun, and that 
the adjective complement may take, as a modifier, an ad- 
verbial element of any degree. 

Connective elements: These are Prepositions, Conjunc- 
tions, Relative Pronouns, and Conjunctive Adverbs; since 
these generally form a part of the elements they serve to 
introduce, further notice of them need not be taken. 

To the rule, that conjunctions are connectives there are 
apparent exceptions: 

1. The conjunction "that" sometimes serves merely to 
introduce a clause that is the subject of the principal state- 
ment; as, "That all men are mortal is well known." 

But this is simply a case of ellipsis and inversion, the 
construction being equivalent to u It is well known that all 
men are mortal." 

2. In the construction with alternative conjunctions, 
the first or introductory conjunction can hardly be said to 
connect. In parsing, the first of a pair of alternatives may 
be called an introductory conjunction. 

Independent elements are words and expressions not 
used as principal or subordinate elements of the sentences 
in which they are used. They are: 

1. Nouns and pronouns in the absolute case; as, " Chil- 
dren, obey your parents;" " Rome, her glory has departed;" 
" The hour having arrived, we left." 

2. Interjections and nouns used in broken exclamative 
sentences; as, "Pshaw/ what nonsense/" 

3. Expletives and words used to introduce sentences 
in a peculiar way; as, " Now, Barabbas was a robber;" " There 
is no report of a disaster;" "It is a shameful thing to tell a 
lie." 

4. Words used for emphasis merely; as, " You yourself 
told me so." 

5. All phrases and clauses that have no perceptible con- 
nection with the rest of the sentence. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IOI 

EXERCISE 49. 

Classify the elements in the following sentences: 

1. My desire is, that you may succeed. 

2. Evils that cannot be cured must be endured. 

3. Trees growing at the foot of a mountain are taller 
than those at its summit. 

4. Will you tell me why you are sad? 

5. We talked earnestly as we walked together. 

6. I have brought the work that you may see it. 

7. If he can arrange his affairs, he will sail for Europe 
when the next steamer leaves. 

8. He was saved by a rope which was thrown to him 
from the ship. 

9. You cannot understand the view which I take of the 
subject. 

10. The letter which she had expected, came as she had 
anticipated. 

11. Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitu- 
tion. 

12. To be or not to be, that is the question. 

EXERCISE 50. 

1. Why we are thus detained, or why we receive no 
intelligence from home are alike mysterious. 

2. Approach and behold, while I lift from the sepulchre 
its covering. 

3. My proposition is, that your son shall be sent to col- 
lege, that you shall go abroad, and that the house shall be 
closed during your absence. 

4. The parting of Hector and Andromache is beauti- 
fully described by Homer. 

5« The tops of Olympus and Parnassus reached above 
the clouds. 

6. And he said, "Behold my mother and my brethren." 

7. She is led to engage in calmer pursuits and to seek 
for gentler employment. 

8. I have spent my days in darkness and error. 



102 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. With surprise and joy, she espied a monk supporting 
Marmion's head. 

10. I was hungry and ye gave me no meat. 

11. It is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. 

12. I was eyes to the blind, and feet was I to the lame. 

EXERCISE 51. 

1. When he arose every sound was hushed, and every 
eye was fixed upon him. 

2. The ransomed shout to their glorious king, where no 
sorrow shades the soul as they sing. 

3. The flowers of the meadow, she plucks no more. 

4. This beautiful rose bears the name of the " Cloth of 
Gold." 

5. The Pope went to Paris to crown the emperor. 

6. I wish to speak with some reserve upon this subject. 

7. I heard their drowning cry, mingling with the wind. 

8. Over these matchless talents Probity threw her 
brightest luster. 

9. Who can estimate the influence of the Sabbath 
School? 

10. He has bestowed many favors upon us. 

11. They spent the summer at the seashore. 

12. Since such is the fact, you have no cause for grief. 

EXERCISE 52- 

1. I do not know where he is concealed. 

2. The crocus blooming in the garden attracted the 
bees. 

3. We told him to leave. 

4. Gliding along the horizon, a sail was seen. 

5. He should have perished on the brink before attempt- 
ing to cross it. 

6. Were they not gone longer than you expected? 

7. Do you know that you have wronged him? 

8. A noble income, nobly expended, is no common 
sight. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 103 

9. Human foresight often leaves its proudest possessor 
only a choice of evils. 

10. Applause is the spur of noble minds, the end and 
aim of weak ones. 

11. Grant graciously what you cannot refuse safely. 

12. Most men know what they hate; few, what they love. 

EXERCISE 53. 

1. Stormed at with shot and shell, 
Boldly they rode and well. 

2. Now upon Syria's land of roses, 
Softly the light of eve reposes. 

3. In the world's broad field of battle, 
Be not like dumb driven cattle. 

4. Oh! ever thus from childhood's hour 
I've seen my fondest hopes decay. 

5. The lamb thy riot doomed to bleed today, 
Had he thy reason, would he sport and play? 

6. Tis better to have loved and lost 
Than never to have loved at all. 

7. Time but the impression deeper makes, 
As streams their channels deeper wear. 

8. The evil that men do lives after them; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

9. Toiling, rejoicing, sorrowing, 
Onward thro' life he goes. 

10. Gayly chattering to the clattering 

Of the brown nuts downward pattering, 
Leap the squirrels red and gray. 

11. That moss covered vessel I hail as a treasure; 
For often at noon, when returned from the field, 
I found it the source of an exquisite pleasure, 
The purest and sweetest that Nature can yield. 

12. On a sudden open fly 
With impetuous recoil and jarring sounds, 
The infernal doors; and on their hinges grate 
Harsh thunder. 



104 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CONTRACTED SENTENCES. 

Sentences are contracted by ellipsis or by abridgment. 
This is done for the sake of brevity and to secure concise- 
ness of expression. 

ELLIPSIS. 

Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words of a sen- 
tence. The words omitted are said to be understood and, 
if required in analysis or parsing, they must be supplied. 

A Simple Sentence may be contracted by omitting all, 
or nearly all, but the most important parts. 

1. The subject may be omitted; as, " Come" = Come 
thou, or do thou come. 

2. The predicate may be omitted; as, " Who will go?" 
"He" = He will go. 

3. Both subject and predicate may be omitted; as, 
" Water! " = Give me some water. 

4. The object may be omitted; as, "Whose book have 
you?" "John's" = I have John's book. 

5. The neuter verb "to be" in all its forms is frequently 
omitted; as, "Where (are) now her glittering towers?" 
"A professed Catholic, he imprisoned the Pope" = Being 
a professed Catholic, etc. " England's friend; Ireland's 
foe"=7<? be England's friend is to be Ireland's foe. 

6. Prepositions and conjunctions may be omitted; as, 
"Build {for) me here seven altars;" "Woe is (to) me!" 
" I know (that) you are honest;" " Each officer (and) each 
private did his duty." 

7. A sentence whose subject or whose predicate con- 
tains a subordinate sentence may be contracted by chang- 
ing the subordinate sentence to an infinitive or participial 
phrase; as, " That I may remain here is my desire " = " To 
remain here is my desire; " " My desire is that I may remain 
here" = li My desire is to remain here." 

A Compound Sentence may be contracted by uniting 
the parts not common to all its members, and using the 
common parts but once; as, "Exercise strengthens the 
constitution and temperance strengthens the constitution" 
= Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IO5 

ABRIDGMENT. 

Complete Sentences are often changed into simple sen- 
tences by abridging their subordinate clauses. Contracted 
clauses are called abridged propositions. " We came that we 
might assist j/ou"=We came to assist you ; "I believe tJiat 
he is honest" — I believe him to be honest. 

There is an essential difference between a sentence 
shortened by abridgment and an abridged proposition. 
In the former, the words are clearly implied and must 
be restored before the sentence can be analyzed or parsed; 
in the latter, an equivalent expression is substituted for an 
entire proposition. The predicate is always retained; but 
it is used as an assumed attribute, the assertion being wholly 
omitted. 

Abridged propositions retain the logical construction of 
the clauses they represent; i. e., abridged adjective, objective, 
or adverbial clauses become, respectively, adjective, objec- 
tive, or adverbial phrases. 

ARRANGEMENT. 

Under this head syntax treats of Relation and Position. 

The Relation of words is their reference to one another 
according to sense; this implies Government and Agreement. 

Government is the power one word has over another in 
determining its case, person, number, or some other prop- 
erty. 

Position refers to the place a word occupies in reference 
to other words in the same sentence 

RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION. 

Rule I. The subject of a sentence must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Rule II. A noun or pronoun used as a part of the predi- 
cate must be in the nominative case. 

Rule III. A noun or pronoun used in explanation or in 
apposition with another, must be in the same case with the 
word it limits. 



106 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule IV. The verb to be takes the same case after it as 
before it. 

Rule V. A noun or pronoun, used to limit a noun or 
pronoun denoting a different person or thing, or used to 
limit a participle, must be in the possessive case. 

Rule VI. A noun or pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb or its participles, must be in the objective 
case. 

Rule VII. The object of a preposition must be in the 
objective case. 

Rule VIII. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in gender, person, and number. 

Rule IX. A verb must agree with its subject in person 
and number. 

Rule X. An adjective or a participle must belong to 
some noun or pronoun. 

Rule XI. The infinitive has the construction of a noun 
with the signification and limitations of a verb. 

Rule XII. Participles have the construction of nouns 
and adjectives and are limited like verbs. 

Rule XIII. Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs. 

Rule XIV. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and 
sentences. 

Rule XV. Interjections and independent nominatives 
have no grammatical relation toother parts of the sentence. 

DISCUSSION OF RULES. 

Rule I. The subject of a sentence must be in the nomi- 
native case. 

Rein. 1. Anything that can be used as a noun may be 
the subject; as,"-)- is the sign of addition;" "To lie is base;" 
"When he came is not known." 

Rem. 2. The subject generally precedes the predicate, 
but is sometimes placed after it, or after the first auxiliary; 
as, " Rest ye;" " May /come?" 

Rem. 3. The subject of the imperative is usually omitted ; 
as, "Depart;" "Bring the book." Both subject and verb are 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 107 

omitted after while, when, if, though, and than, when the verb 
is made one of the terms of a comparison; as, " He talks 
while [he is] writing;" " He is kind when [he is] sober;" 
" I will come if [it be] possible;" " They are honest though 
[they are] poor;" " He has more knowledge than [he has] 
wisdom." 

Caution 1. When using a relative or an interrogative pro- 
noun, separated by intervening words from the verb of which it is 
the subject, take care that the pronoun is in the nominative form. 
Example — " Whom do you think called on me?" Incorrect: 
"Whom" in the objective is made the subject of the verb 
" called " when it should be nominative by Rule I. 

Caution 2. In elliptical sentences, especially when the verb is 
omitted after than and as, take care that your pronoun, subject of 
the omitted verb, has the nominative form. Example — " Is she 
as tall as me?" Incorrect: "Amis understood and "me" 
cannot be its subject. 

EXERCISE 54- 

Correct violations of Rule I. 

1. You and me will go together. 

2. Them that seek wisdom will be wise. 

3. He feared the enemy might fall upon his men, whom 
he saw were off their guard. 

4. Whom do you suppose stands first? 

5. This is a man whom, I think, needs help. 

6. My brother is a better swimmer than him. 

7. Is James as old as me? 

8. Such a man as him cannot be President. 

9. Are you taller than her? 

10. She suffers hourly more than me. 

11. It is not for such as us to sit with the rulers. 

12. She was neither better nor wiser than you or me. 
Rul6 II. A noun or pronoun used as part of the predi- 
cate must be in the nominative case. 

Rem. 1. The predicate nominative denotes the same 
person or thing as the subject. It agrees not only in case 
but usually in gender and number. It may be a noun or its 



108 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

equivalent; as, "That letter is C;" "To labor is to pray;" 
" The command was, 'Storm the fort at daybreak.' " 

Rem. 2. In questions, and when the subject and predi- 
cate are emphatically distinguished, the subject and predi- 
cate change places; as, "Who is that man?" " His pavilion 
round about him were dark waters and clouds of the sky." 

Rem. 3. By an idiom of our language, the neuter pro- 
noun it as a subject may take as its predicate a noun or pro- 
noun of any person, number, or gender; as, "It is I;" "// is 
they ;" "It is he;" "It is she." 

Rem. 4. When in an abridged sentence a possessive is 
placed before the neuter verb or its participle, the predicate 
nominative remains unchanged; as, " He said it was she;'' 
abridged, He spoke of its being she. 

Caution 1. In using the relative and interrogative " Who " 
as a part of the predicate, take care that the pronoun is in the 
nominative form. Example — " Whom do men say that I am?" 
Incorrect: " Whom " is a part of the predicate with am, and 
should be who. 

Caution 2. In using a noun or pronoun as the complement 
of a participle, take care that the complement agrees in case with 
the noun or pro?ioun preceding the participle. Example — " It 
being her no more could be said." Incorrect: The parti- 
ciple " being " is preceded by it in the nominative case, so 
that " her " should be she. 

EXERCISE 55- 

Correct violations of Rule II. 

1. I would act the same part if I were him. 

2. They thought I was him. 

3. Whom do you think it is? Whom do you say I am? 

4. It is them you said deserved blame. 

5. I little thought it had been him. 

6. I think I know whom he is. 

7. I think it was her; it may have been him. 

8. Let him be whom he might be. 

9. Them are the persons who he thought true. 

10. It may have been her. It may have been them. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. IO9 

11. I would not do so were I him. 

12. It being her, there was nothing more to be said. 
Rule III. A noun or pronoun used in explanation or in 

apposition with another, must be in the same case with the 
word it limits. 

Rem. 1. When a noun is put in apposition with a noun 
or pronoun in the possessive case, the sign of possession 
may be omitted; as, " This was Tilden's opinion, the most 
eminent lawyer in the state." 

Rem. 2. When possessives are in apposition the sign 
of possession is used only with the one next to the noun 
limited; as, " Peter the Hermits eloquence." 

Rem. 3. Words in apposition are sometimes connected 
by as, or, and, or than. 

NOTES ON PECULIAR FORMS. 

I. Each other, one another. These words, often classed 
as reciprocal pronouns, are really not in the same construc- 
tion. 

"John and David love each other "=John and David 
each loves the other. " Each " is a nominative in apposition 
with "John" and "David;" "other" is an objective to 
" loves." 

"The boys struck one another " = The boys struck, one 
struck another. " One " is nominative and " another " is 
objective. Thus it appears that " each " and " one " are in 
apposition with a plural noun or with two singular nouns 
taken conjointly. 

II. " His popularity as president increases daily." It is 
quite customary to construe the noun " president" as in the 
possessive case in apposition with " his." Would it not be 
better to treat "his" as equivalent to of him; "president" 
then is in the objective in apposition with him. 

III. Sometimes a noun is used by pleonasm in appo- 
sition with a sentence; as, " He boldly attacked the enemy 
with an inferior force; an act which cost the lives of his 
command." Here " act " is in apposition with all that pre- 
cedes. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE 56. 

Correct violations of Rule III. 

1. The insult was offered to my friend, he whom I 
loved. 

2. We traveled on in silence, her and me. 

3. I am going to see my friends, they that visited me. 

4. Whom shall we praise? They who do their duty. 

5. Do you insult me, I who have been your friend? 

6. Let us worship God, he who created us. 

7. My watch was lost near Wilkin's the blacksmith's. 

8. What! Was the general him you wished to see? 

9. I bought it of Mrs. Wilson, she who keeps the shop. 

10. I met your brother, him who owns the mill. 

11. It was George, him that we met. 

12. I know your sisters, they that go to school. 

Rule IV. The verb to be takes the same case after it as 
before it. 

Rem. 1. This rule is included in Rule II. so far as pred- 
ication is concerned. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive to be is frequently understood; 
as, "They elected him (to be) president." Some prefer to 
call "him" and "president" double objects in apposition. 

EXERCISE 57. 

Correct violations of Rule IV. 

1. It was not me nor him that played truant. 

2. I disbelieve it to be he. It was them. 

3. I think it was not them. It was him. 

4. Whom do you say they were? Was it him? 

5. If I were him, I would go to Europe. 

6. I do not know whom they were. 

7. I thought it was him. I believe it to be he. 

8. I took you to be she. I believed it to be her. 

9. Was it him who stole the apples? 

10. Whom does he think it could have been? 

11. It could not have been them. 

12. I know it to have been they. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Note. It will be observed that the subject of the infini- 
tive, i. e., the noun or pronoun on which the infinitive 
depends, is usually in the objective case. 

Rule V. A noun or pronoun used to limit a noun or 
pronoun denoting a different person or thing, or used to 
limit a participle, must be in the possessive case. 

Rem. 1. The possessive term is always an adjective ele- 
ment limiting the thing possessed; as, "My houses;" "Our 
hopes;" "His being sick." 

Rem. 2. The limited noun or pronoun, when sufficiently 
obvious, is often omitted; as, "Brown's" (store); "From 
Roe's (possession) into Doe's" (possession). 

Rem. 3. When joint possession is attributed to two or 
more persons, the name only of the last mentioned takes the 
possessive sign; as, " Brown and Smith's store." 

Rem. 4. When separate ownership is attributed to two 
or more persons the name of each should be in the possess- 
ive case; as, "Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries." 

Rem. 5. When ownership is ascribed to a single person, 
described by two or more nouns in apposition, only the noun 
immediately preceding the limited noun takes the possess- 
ive sign; as, " For my servant Davids sake." 

Parse such nouns as possessives in apposition. 

Rem. 6. In a complex noun the last word takes the pos- 
sessive sign; as, "My father-in-/<m>'5 house;" "Peter the 
Hermits eloquence." 

In parsing, a complex noun is to be taken as a whole. 

Rem. 7. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case may 
limit a participle; as, "They approve of your studying 
grammar;" "There are defects in John's writing." 

Note. While the participle as a noun may be modified 
by a possessive noun or pronoun, it may, in its verb char- 
acter, have a complement, an object, or an adverbial adjunct; 
thus, " His family suffered in consequence of kisbeingsick;" 
" This is the result of his neglecting his duty." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



EXERCISE 58- 

Correct violations of Rule V. 

1. That bridge is opposite Brown's brother's. 

2. Was John's and Henry's mother there? 

3. We have men and boy's shoes. 

4. There is little difference between the Earth and 
Venus's diameter. 

5. The general's aids horse was killed. 

6. I purchased this at Penfield's the bookseller's. 

7. He bought a hog's head of sugar. 

8. My book is larger than your's. 

9. Call at Smith's the shoemaker's. 

10. We heard of your honor coming to town. 

11. No one could prevent him escaping. 

12. This is his'n, that is your'n, the other is her'n. 

Rule VI. A noun or a pronoun used as the object of a 
transitive verb or its participles, must be in the objective 
case. 

Caution. When the pro?ioun object is at a distance from its 
governing verb, take care to use the objective form. Example — 
" They that honor me I will honor." Incorrect: "They" 
is the object of the verb " will honor" and should have the 
objective form them. 

Special Rule i. Nouns denoting time, distance, measure, 
or value are often, after verbs or adjectives, put in the 
objective case without a governing word; as, " It is six feet 
high;" " It is worth a dollar ;" " He is nine years old;" " He 
ran a mile." 

Special Rule 2. Some transitive verbs, as give, pay, tell, 
get, etc., may be followed by two objects denoting different 
things, a direct and an indirect object; thus, " Give/w<? (indi- 
rect) a book " (direct); " Buy her (indirect) a hat " (direct). 

Rem. 1. The indirect object always precedes the direct. 

Rem. 2. In the passive use of these verbs whenever the 
direct object is made the subject, the indirect object becomes 
the object of a preposition; as, "A book was bought for mc ;' 
but there are constructions in which the i?idirect object 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 1 3 



becomes the subject, while the direct object is retained after 
the passive verb. Example — Active use — " They refused 
us (indirect) support" (direct). Passive use — "We were 
refused support." 

Special Rule 3. Verbs signifying to make, create, elect, 
call, name, etc., take double objects signifying the same 
thing; as, " They elected Cleveland president ; " " They named 
her Ruth;" " He made Blount ambassador :" 

EXERCISE 59. 

Correct violations of Syntax: 

1. Please let him and I sit together. 

2. I do not know who to trust. 

3. I saw she and him at the concert. 

4. Who are you looking for? 

5. Who did you say you met? 

6. Who should I meet but him. 

7. My father allowed my brother and I to go. 

8. Let you and I advance. 

9. You are good to praise we poor fellows. 

10. He wished to know who he should love. 

11. I do not know who to send. 

12. Let the able-bodied fight, they who are feeble do 
guard duty. 

Rule VII. The object of a preposition must be in the 
objective case. 

Caution. There are two arrangements of a sentence in 
which a violation of this rule is liable to occur: 

First, When the preposition is remote from its object; as, 
"Who did you buy that of?" This sentence illustrates a 
common colloquial arrangement and a common colloquial 
error. " Who" should be whom. A better arrangement 
would be, " Of whom did you buy that? " 

Second, When there is an ellipsis of the governing prepo- 
sition; as, "I gave it to some one, I know not who." In 
this sentence there is an ellipsis of to before "who." The 
sentence should read, " I know not whom" or " I know not to 
whom." 



114 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rem. 1. Some phrases consist of a preposition followed 
by an adjective or an adverb. In such cases the entire 
expression may be regarded as an inseparable phrase. 
Examples — In vain, at once, till now, till lately, etc. 

Rem. 2. Between and among. Between means " by twain" 
that is " by two's," hence it cannot apply to more than two. 
The preposition among or amongst applies to more than two. 
We may say the two thieves divided the money between 
them; but the soldiers divided the booty amo?ig them. 

Rem. 3. But. But, in the sense of except, is a preposi- 
tion. Phrases such as " All but you and I" are ungram- 
matical. But may be followed by an infinitive object with 
the preposition suppressed; as, " He does nothing but (to) 
cry." 

Rem. 4. There are many words that can be followed 
by but one preposition, there are other words that admit 
different prepositions, the meaning varying with each. Care 
must be taken to select the preposition best fitted to convey 
the meaning intended. For this purpose, in cases of doubt, 
we must refer to our unabridged dictionary. 

Campbell's " Hand-book of Synonyms and Prepositions" 
is especially recommended to those who would be exact in 
their use of prepositions, as it gives a multitude of quotations 
illustrating their nicer distinctions. 

EXERCISE 6o. 

Correct violations of Rule VII. 

1. Who did you vote for? Who do you board with? 

2. There is no one at home but mother and I. 

3. This is between you and I. Who did you speak of? 

4. Who did you come with? Who is it for? 

5. There are no marks to show who it belongs to. 

6. Let that remain a secret between you and I. 

7. I bestow my favors on whoever I will. 

8. Who you spend your evenings with, is well known. 

9. So you must ride on horseback after we. 
10. The'boy stood alone; all but he had fled. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 1 5 

11. Divide the money between the three. 

12. No one but he should be about the king. 

Rule VIII. Pronouns must agree with their antecedents 
in gender, person, and number. 

Rem. The antecedent is the word that is represented 
by the pronoun. 

Special Rule i. A pronoun in the singular is used to 
represent: 

1. Two or more words in the singular connected by 
or or nor. 

2. A collective noun denoting unity of idea. 

3. The words each, every, either, neither, and one, used 
either with or without nouns. 

Special Rule 2. A pronoun in the plural number is used 
to represent: 

1. Two or more words in the singular number connected 
by a?id, and denoting plurality of ideas. 

2. A collective noun denoting plurality of ideas. 
Rem. 1. That as a relative should generally be used 

after a, all, every, same, and very ; after who, used interroga- 
tively, after an adjective in the superlative degree, and after 
a joint reference to persons and things. 

Rem. 2. In the position of singular pronouns the second 
precedes the others, and the third precedes the first. 

Of the plural pronouns we has the first place, you the 
second, and they the third. 

Rem. 3. A pronoun representing words of different 
persons, should agree with the first person rather than with 
the second, and with the second rather than with the third. 

Rem. 4. The pronoun it is used to represent: 

1. A noun or pronoun in any person, in either number, 
or of any gender. 

2. A sentence or a part of a sentence. 

3. It is also used without reference to any particular 
person or thing; thus, "It is I;" "//was they;" "It was he;" 
"//snows;" "We roughed it in camp;" "You have done 
wrong and you will repent it." 

Rem. 5. When a pronoun has two antecedents of dif- 



Il6 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ferent genders, the use of a singular masculine pronoun to 
represent them would be clearly improper. In such cases use. 

1. A plural pronoun that may represent both genders; 
as, " Not on their beauty could he or she pride themselves." 

2. Use different pronouns; as, " No boy or girl should 
whisper to his or her neighbor." 

3. Substitute a general term that will include both antece- 
dents; as, " No pupil (boy or girl) should whisper to his 
neighbor." 

Rem. 6. When one of the antecedents is plural, it should 
be placed last, and the pronoun made to agree with it in the 
plural; as, "The father and the sons have finished their 
work." 

Caution. Be careful to leave no obscurity in the reference 
of a pronoun to its antecedent. To this end place the relative 
as near as possible to its antecedent. 

Do not omit the relative a?id its governing preposition, when 
they are necessary to give connection to the sentence. 

EXERCISE 6i. 

Correct violations of Rule VIII. 

1. Every one should have their lives insured. 

2. A civilized people has no right to violate their 
solemn obligations. 

3. If any one has not paid their fare, let them do so. 

4. The jury could not agree in its verdict. 

5. If you see an error or a fault in my conduct, remind 
me of them. 

6. Each contributed what they could. 

7. Those that have a Fourth Reader will please bring 
them with them. 

8. Henry or Samuel will lend you their book. 

9. No father or mother lives that does not love his or 
her children. 

10. If you see my horse or mule, turn them into the 
pasture. 

11. He is still in the position you saw him. 

12. Be diligent, without which you cannot succeed. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 11/ 

RULE IX. 

A verb must agree with its subject in person and number.. 

Special Rule i. Two or more subjects in the singular, 
connected by and and conveying plurality of idea, require a 
verb in the plural. 

Rem. I. If one of the subjects is in the first person, the 
verb is placed in the first plural; but if there be no first per- 
son, and one of the subjects is in the second person, then 
the verb is placed in the second person plural; as, " He and 
I are to go;" " You and James are to go." 

Rem. 2. There are complex subjects that convey the 
idea of unity, not plurality; in such cases the verb is singular. 
Examples — 

1. Two or more subjects in the singular connected by 
and, but different names for the same person or thing, and 
together representing but a single idea; as, " The saint, the 
father, and the husband prays'' 

2. Two or more single subjects emphatically distin- 
guished; as, "All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy;" 
" Each day and each hour brings its own duties." 

8. Two nouns representing a single compound object; as, 
•' Bread and milk is good food." 

4. Two nouns, one of which is excluded from the affirma- 
tion by the adverb not; as, " Industry and not mean savings 
produces honorable wealth." In such cases the verb agrees 
with the subject of the affirmative proposition and is under- 
stood with the other. 

Special Rule 2. Two or more subjects in the singular 
separated by or or nor require a verb in the singular; as, 
" He or she has it;" " Neither this nor that is mine." 

Rem. 1. If one of the subjects is plural it must be placed 
next the verb, which also must be plural; as, "The father 
and the boys have finished their work." 

Rem. 2. A verb having two or more subjects of differ- 
ent persons connected by or or nor, agrees with the nearest 
subject and is understood with the rest in the proper person 
and number; as, " Either he or I am to blame;" " You or he 



Il8 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

is mistaken;" " Neither he nor I am to blame." It is better 
usage, however, to repeat the verb; thus, " Either he is to 
blame or I am" " You are mistaken or he is;" " He does 
not study nor do you." 

Special Rule 3. A collective noun in which the idea of 
unity is prominent, takes a verb in the singular; as, " The 
fleet was victorious;" but if the idea of plurality is promi- 
nent, the verb must be plural; as, " The public are invited." 

Rem. This principle holds true in the case of the 
adjective pronouns, none, any, all, such, etc. They take verbs 
in the singular or plural according as unity or plurality of 
idea is intended. 

EXERCISE 62. 

Correct violations of Rule IX. and special rules. 

1. You and I was walking together. 

2. The horses has been fed. 

3. There was mountains where I lived. 

4. A committee were appointed to draft resolutions. 

5. The corporation is individually responsible. 

6. We are a personal pronoun. 

7. The board of trustees have a meeting to-night. 

8. Mr. Johnson and his brother was at the meeting. 

9. Bread and milk are good food. 

10. I together with my sister are intending to visit you. 

11. The salmon as well as the trout have become scarce. 

12. Were the boys or the girl badly bruised? 

EXERCISE 63. 

Correct similar errors. 

1. The derivation of these words are uncertain. 

2. The condition of the crops show the effect of 
drouth. 

3. The strata that contains coal belongs to the tertiary 
era. 

4. In Alaska the winters are long and the cold intense. 

5. Every house-top and every steeple show a flag. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. H9 

6. To read and write were once an honorary distinction. 

7. Our will and not our stars make us underlings. 

8. No voice nor sound save echoes were heard. 

9. Not you but Mary are the best scholar. 

10. The assembly, thus convened, were numerous. 

11. Campbell's Pleasures of Hope were sold for fifty 
cents. 

12. A Webster's and a Worcester's dictionary was con- 
sulted. 



RULE X. 

An adjective or a participle must belong to some noun or 
pronoun. 

Rem. 1. The words belongs to are here used as synony- 
mous with relates, modifies, and limits — terms employed by 
different grammarians to denote that the adjective and par* 
ticiple are adjuncts. 

Rem. 2. Adjectives used in predicate with passive and 
neuter verbs perform a double office. They are comple- 
ments of the verb and, at the same time, modifiers of the 
subject. 

Special Rule i. Adjectives that denote unity or plu- 
rality must agree with their nouns in number; as," This sort;" 
"These sorts;" " This hand;" " These hands." 

Rem. 1. Definitive adjectives denoting quantity are 
used before nouns in the singular; those implying number, 
if that be more than one, are used before nouns in the 
plural; thus, 

Singular. Plural, 

Much, many. 

Little, few. 

Less, fewer. 

Least, fewest. 

Rem. 2. The definitive adjectives all, some, any, no, 
and other agree with nouns in either number. 

Rem. 3. The definitive adjectives each, every, either, and 
neither are used with nouns in the singular number only. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Either and neither denote one of two objects only, when 
more are referred to, a?iy or any one, ?wne or no one should 
be used. 

Rem. 4. When two or more descriptive adjectives be- 
long to a noun representing but one object, the definitives a 
and the should not be repeated; as, "A red and white flag," 
i. e., one flag having two colors. 

But when two or more such adjectives belong to a noun 
used to represent as many different objects as there are 
adjectives employed, the definitive adjective must be re- 
peated; as, "We saw a black, a white, a bay, and a gray 
horse," i. e., four horses. 

Rem. 5. When two or more nouns mean the same per- 
son or thing, the adjective a or the is used before the first 
only; as, "A priest and king;" " Johnson, the bookseller and 
stationer." But if the nouns mean different persons or 
things, the definitive must be repeated; as, "A lawyer, a 
doctor, and a minister were present." 

Special Rule 2. The comparative degree is used when 
only two objects are compared; the superlative when more 
than two are brought into comparison; as, " Gold is heavier 
than iron;" " The greatest man of his age." 

Rem. 1. When the comparative degree is used, the 
latter term of comparison should always exclude the former; 
but when the superlative is used, the latter term should 
always include the former; as, "John is wiser than his 
brother;" "John is the wisest of the three boys." 

Rem. 2. Double forms of the comparative and super- 
lative must not be used; thus, the strictest sect, not the 
most strictest sect; the worse result, not the worser result. 

Some of our older writers, when they wished to mark em- 
phasis strongly, employed double comparatives and super- 
latives; but such constructions are contrary to modern 
usage. 

Special Rule 3. Definitive adjectives, when used with 
descriptives are generally placed first; as, "The old man;" 
" Tc?i small trees;" but after many, such, all, what, and both, the 
definitive stands next to the noun; so also after adjectives 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 121 

preceded by too, so, as, or how ; as, " Many a man;" " Such a 
man;" "All the boys;" "What*? boy;" "Both the girls;" "Too 
great, as great, so great, how great a man." 

EXERCISE 64. 

Correct violations of Rule X. and special rules follow- 
ing. 

1. These kind of peaches are better than those. 

2. These sort of fellows are very numerous. 

3. This tidings will bring sorrow to the nation. 

4. Not less than twenty-five dictionaries have been 
published. 

5. John, James, and Henry are here, and either will help 
you. 

6. The governor and the commander-in-chief [one per- 
son] has arrived. 

7. The governor and commander-in-chief [two persons] 
have arrived. 

8. The rich and poor have a common interest. 

9. A man, woman, and infant were riding in the cars. 

10. Shakespeare is more admired than any English 
poet. 

11. Of the two ways the narrowest is best. 

12. A more worthier man you cannot find. 

RULE XL 

The infinitive often has the construction of a noun with 
the signification and limitations of a verb. Examples- — "To 
err is human;" " He loves to play ;" " He wishes to buy a book." 

Rem. 1. In the first of these examples to err takes the 
place of a noun in the nominative case, and in the remaining 
two, to play and to buy take the place of nouns in the objective. 

Rem. 2. The infinitive usually occurs without a subject; 
as, " They wish to walk;" but it may have a subject in the 
objective; as, " They ordered him to leave." In this example 
the infinitive and its subject is the object of the transitive 
verb ordered. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Rem. 3. The infinitive may be used as an adjective 
element; as, "Time to come;" "A desire to go." It may 
also be used adverbially: 

1. To denote a purpose; as, " They ran to see." 

2. After too, than, so — as; as, " He is too proud to beg; " 
" He is wiser than to attempt it; " " Be so good as to hear me." 
It may also be used independently; as, " To confess the 
truth, I was in fault." 

Rem. 4. The infinitive is often understood; as, " They 
considered him [to be~\ just." 

Rem. 5. After the verbs bid, dare (venture), hear, feel, 
let, make, need, see, and some others, the infinitive is used 
without the preposition to; as, " He bade him go;" " I saw 
him fall." 

Rem. 6. Verbs expressing hope, expectation, comma?id, or 
inte?ition must be followed by a present infinitive; as, " I 
hoped to see you;" " I intended to call;" " I expected to meet 
you." 

EXERCISE 65. 

Point out the use of the infinitives in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. I have brought a book for you to read. 

2. Johnson declared wit to consist in detecting resem- 
blances. 

3. They will find him to be a dangerous ally. 

4. To assert and to deny the same sentiment on differ- 
ent pages is proof of instability of opinion. 

5. It was well for him to die at his post. 

6. I heard him repeat whole pages of poetry. 

7. It is a disgrace to be the author of such a report. 

8. I love to roam over the green fields. 

9. You seem to think the rule inapplicable. 

10. They appear to rest on the solid earth. 

11. The work is to be commenced to-morrow. 

12. Will you be so good as to pass me that book? 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I23 

RULE XII. 

Participles have the construction of nouns and adjectives 
and are limited like verbs. Examples — " He, stooping down 
and looking in, saw the linen clothes lying;" "The rumbling 
of artillery was heard." 

Rem. 1. The participle used as an adjective assumes 
what the verb would assert; as, " Hyacinths blooming;" 
" Hyacinths bloom." 

Rem. 2. The participle may be used wholly as an ad- 
jective; it is then classed as an adjective and placed before 
its noun; as, " The breaking waves dashed high;" but when it 
has the signification and limitations of a verb, it is parsed 
as a participle; as, " Encouraged by his promises we came." 

Rem. 3. A participle may be followed by a predicate 
nominative, whenever the noun or pronoun to which it be- 
longs is in the nominative, or in the possessive case; as, 
" He being a good student;" " I have heard of his being an 
orator;" but when the noun or pronoun to which the par- 
ticiple belongs is in the objective, the predicate noun is also 
in the objective case; as, " We regarded him as being a good 
writer." 

Rem. 4. A participle may be used wholly as a noun, or 
as a noun having the meaning and limitations of a verb; as, 
" It is pleasant to walk at the rising of the sun; " " We should 
avoid giving pain to others." 

The participle used wholly as a noun is preceded by an 
adjective and followed by <?/with an objective. 

The participle used as a noun and having the limitations 
of a verb may be the subject, the predicate nominative, or 
the object of a verb; it may be the object of a preposition; 
as, "Loving our neighbor is fulfilling the law;" "Stealing is 
taking without permission;" "We should avoid breaking a 
promise; " " On approaching nearer the house, we heard the 
sound of q2tarreling. u 



124 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 66. 

Point out the uses of the participles in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. A far more interesting personage was the god of the 
air. 

2. This is doing injustice to one of our greatest states- 
men. 

3. We expect the dancing master to teach children 
manners. 

4. Why is the experiment of an extended republic to 
be rejected? 

5. He came near being devoured by the monster. 

6. The case is well worth considering. 

7. They narrowly escaped being taken prisoners. 

8. Being convinced of his guilt, we resolved to punish 
him. 

9. We descried a vessel stripped of its masts. 

10. Having declined the proposal, I took my own course. 

11. Some persons commence by being their own masters. 

12. Some end by being their own slaves. 

RULE XIII. 

Adverbs modify verbs, participles, adjectives, and other 
adverbs. 

Rem. 1. The adverbs yes and no used in answer to ques- 
tions, are called independent adverbs. There is also a class 
of adverbs, styled by some grammarians Modal Adverbs, 
which modify an entire proposition; as, "Hozvcver, if this be 
true, I shall not oppose it." Adverbs also modify phrases; 
as, " He lives just over the hill." 

Rem. 2. The adverb there is often used to introduce 
sentences. In such cases the subject of the sentence is 
placed after the verb; as, ^ There was much grass there;" 
"There were three of us " 

In such cases, there may be parsed as an Expletive adverb. 

Rem. 3. Two contradictory negatives in the same sen- 
tence are equivalent to an affirmative; as, " I cannot write no 
more"=I can write more. Hence two negatives should 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 25 

not be employed to express a negation. Say, I want no 
umbrella; not I don't want no umbrella. 

Two or more negatives not contradictory do not destroy 
the negative character of the sentence; as, " I will never 
yield, no never!' 

Rem. 4. The comparative and superlative forms of 
adjectives preceded by the definitive the are often used as 
adjectives; as, "The more I see him the better I like him;" 
" He lives best who acts the noblest!' 

Rem. 5. When the quality of an object and not the 
manner of the action is to be expressed, an adjective should 
be used instead of an adverb; as, " He arrived safe," not 
safely; "She looks beautiful," not beautifully. 

Special Rule i. Adverbs should be so placed as to render 
the scnte?ice clear, correct, and elegant, as the sense intended to be 
conveyed depends largely upon their position. 

Rem. 1. With a simple infinitive, the adverb must not 
separate the sign to from the verb. It must either precede 
it, or it must follow the whole infinitive form; thus, "He 
used often to come, or to come often." In compound infini- 
tives, the rule is the same as with other compound tenses, 
i. e., the adverb should be placed between the auxiliary and 
the participle; as, " It is believed to have often happened." 

Rem. 2. Special care must be used in placing the ad- 
verb only. Of all English words it is most often misplaced. 
It may express several different meanings, according to its 
position in the sentence. Examples — " Only he mourned 
for his brother;" He was a cold-hearted man (but, as an 
exception to his general character) he mourned for his 
brother. 

He only mourned for his brother. . No one else mourned. 

He mourned only for his brother. . For no other reason. 

He mourned for his only brother. .Only, here, is an ad- 
jective. 

He mourned for his brother only . . For no one else. 

Special Rule 2. Nouns denoting time, distance, value, etc., 
may be used as adverbial objectives without a governing 
preposition; as, "The child is five years old;" " A gallows 
fifty cubits high; " " You are paid twenty dollars a week." 



126 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISE 67. 

Correct errors in the use of adverbs. 

1. He wont give me no satisfaction. 

2. Nobody never saw such a crowd of people. 

3. The children all looked beautifully. 

4. You did splendid last examination. 

5. They seemed to be nearly dressed alike. 

6. The heavenly bodies are in motion perpetually. 

7. I scarce know what I am saying. 

8. I only want to borrow your umbrella. 

9. I am tolerable well I thank you. 

10. By greatness I not only mean the bulk but the large- 
ness of the whole. 

11. Thales was not only famous for his knowledge but 
for his morals. 

12. I will not take that course by no means. 

RULE XIV. 

Conjunctions connect words, phrases, and sentences. 
Rem. 1. When conjunctions connect words and phrases, 
such words and phrases are almost always in the same con- 
struction. Care must be taken not to unite dissimilar or 
disproportionate terms; as, "I always have [have been] 
and always shall be of this opinion." 

Rem. 2. Conjunctions are sometimes used to introduce 
sentences; as, " And it came to pass, etc." 

Rem. 3. In the use of alternatives be careful that the 
antecedent and consequent parts correspond to each other. 
Though requires jj/rt/ as, " Though deep yet clear." 
Whether requires or; as, " Whether it was green or blue." 
Either requires or; as, " He either bought it or stole it." 
Neither requires nor; as, " Neither borrow ?wr lend." 
Note. Either — or and neither — nor strictly used express 
an alternative or a choice between two only. 

Both requires and; as, " Both quick and dead." 
As requires as in affirming; as, "Mine are as good as 
yours." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 127 

So requires as in denying; as, " His is not so good as 
ours." 

So requires as in restricting; as, " Be so good as to do 
this." 

Rem. 4. Take care to use conjunctions fitted to express 
the sense intended, thus: That should be used after expres- 
sions implying doubt, fear, or denial; as, " I doubt that he 
is honest;" " I fear that it will rain;" " I deny that it hap- 
pened." Than should be used after else, other, rather, and all 
comparatives; as, " He would rather run than fight;" "She 
had been wiser tha?i I." 

Rem. 5. Than is sometimes improperly used for a prepo- 
sition; as, " I would prefer being right than president." This 
should be, I would prefer being right to being president. 

The case of the noun or pronoun following than depends 
on the construction of the subsequent clause; thus, " I es- 
teem you more than they" [esteem you]; "I esteem you 
more than them" [more than I esteem them J. 

A peculiar use of than is found in the writings of some 
of our best authors. 

" Pope than whom few men had more vanity." (Johnson.) 
Here than seems to be used as a preposition governing whom. 
It is, perhaps, better to regard this use as an idiom and 
anomalous. 

EXERCISE 68. 

Correct errors in the use of conjunctions. 

1. We moved along silently and with caution. 

2. To play is more pleasant than working. 

3. Neither despise or oppose what you do not under- 
stand. 

4. He is more bold but not so wise as his companions. 

5. As far as lam able to judge that book is well written. 

6. That lot is preferable and cheaper than yours. 

7. Sincerity is as valuable and even more so as knowl- 
edge. 

8. He has no love nor veneration for him. 

9. Neither James or John came home yesterday. 



125 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

10. He can brag loudly and he runs from danger. 

11. I do not deny but he has merit. 

12. We expected something more besides this. 

RULE XV. 

Interjections and independent nominatives have no 
grammatical connection with other parts of the sentence. 

Rem. 1. A noun or pronoun maybe used independently 
in the nominative in the following ways: 

1. By direct address; as, "John, come to me." 

2. By exclamation; as, "Gold! The word is magical." 

3. By pleonasm; as, "The boy oh! where was he." 

4. Before a participle; as, "Spring returning, the flowers 
bloom." 

Rem. 2. The interjection is to be parsed as having no 
grammatical connection with any other word in the sen- 
tence. It is simply a sound expressive of sudden feeling. 

Rem. 3. O, Oh. O is properly used only before nouns 
to indicate the case of direct address; as," O solitude, where 
are the charms that sages have seen in thy face." It is 
always a capital letter. Oh may be written oh and is an 
expression of sentiment, as of appeal, grief, etc. 

ERRORS IN TOE USE OF LANGUAGE. 

An error in the use of language is any violation of good 
usage, either in the use of words or in the construction of 
sentences. 

Errors in the use of language may be classified under 
four heads: (i) Too many words. (2) Too few words. 
(3) Improper words or expressions. (4) Improper arrange- 
ment of words, phrases, or clauses. 

EXERCISE 69. 

Reject needless words in the following sentences: 

1. I have got a long lesson to learn. 

2. They got angry in their settling of their account. 

3. I do not recollect of hearing him say so. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 120, 

4. You will not never have no such chance again. 

5. Pharaoh and his host pursued after them. 

6. He was compelled to return back against his will. 

7. Whenever he sees me, he always inquires after your 
health. 

8. He had not ought to use profane language. 

9. They who have not bought tickets must now buy 
their tickets. 

10. It is above a year since the time I left school. 

11. It took us two hours time to learn that lesson. 

12. You haven't never denied but that you came from 
Canada. 

EXERCISE 70. 

1. You don't look no older than you did ten years ago. 

2. The best way to keep a secret is to say nothing to 
nobody. 

3. There cannot be nothing more insignificant than 
vanity. 

4. Time and tide don't never wait for nobody. 

5. The father he died, and the mother she died, and the 
children they died also. 

6. Napoleon, Waterloo having been lost, he gave him- 
self up to the English. 

7. The cat it mewed, and the dog it barked, and the 
man he shouted. 

8. The days, the hours, and the minutes drag slowly 
along. 

9. That wise and that good man has many friends. 

10. She is not so good a cook as a milliner. 

11. She will never be no better so the doctor says. 

12. John he does not think so but Jane she does. 

EXERCISE 71. 
Supply the words needed in the following sentences: 

1. There is a difference between a predicate verb and 
participle. 

2. A white and red flag were flying. 



130 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Some people never have and never will bathe in salt 
water. 

4. I was amused at the way he told it. 

5. What use would it be to me? 

6. This remark is worthy the dunce that made it. 

7. He does not know you better than John. 

8. A squirrel can climb a tree quicker than a boy. 

9. It depends on what precedes and follows. 

10. This is the way I hold my pen. 

11. That is the best can be said of him. 

12. That is as hard a story to swallow as Gulliver him- 
self. 

EXERCISE 72. 

1. China has a greater population than any nation. 

2. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 

3. There is no metal so useful as iron. 

4. All the metals are less useful than iron. 

5. Solomon was wiser than any of the ancient kings. 

6. The house in which I had lived and long owned was 
burned. 

7. I have never read the book and never mean to. 

8. All admire the beauties of nature and art. 

9. Number the trees in the order they stand. 

10. I gave some to Edwin as well as Jonas. 

11. It was he discouraged the undertaking. 

12. He owns more land than any man in the county. 

IMPROPER WORDS. 

Caution 1. Avoid the use of words with a wrong mean- 
ing. 

EXERCISE 73. 

1. The tide sits in. Go and lay down. 

2. The sun sits in the west. I remember when the 
corner-stone was lain. 

3. Sit the plates on the table. He sat out for London 
yesterday. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I3I 

4. Your dress sets well. The bird is setting on her nest. 

5. I laid there an hour. Set down and talk awhile. 

6. I am setting by the river. He done it without per- 
mission. 

7. He flew from justice. Some valuable land was over- 
flown. 

8. She come in after you left. They sung a new tunc 

9. The water I drunk was better than I had drank be- 
fore. 

10. The leaves had fell. I had rode five miles. 

11. The storm begun to gather. I found the water 
froze. 

12. He raised up. He run till he was exhausted. 

EXERCISE 74. 

1. I knowed it was so for I seen him when he done it. 

2. I had began to think you had forsook us. 

3. I am trying to learn you grammar. 

4. I guess that I will stop. John done it. 

5. I expect that he has went to Chicago. 

6. There ain't no use of trying nohow. 

7. Can I speak to you? He had ought to see him. 

8. He treated me with great negligence on that day. 

9. It is a matter of no consequence. 

10. I have sold the balance of the goods. 

11. They teamed a load of ice into the city. 

12. He enjoyed bad health but the medicine affected a 



cure. 



EXERCISE 75. 



1. He has nary horse nor ary wagon. 

2. Snow seldom or ever falls in Florida. 

3. He is a mighty mean man. He come here a week 
since. 

4. He walks like I do, but he is not tall like I am. 

5. You should never do no mischief. 

6. Give me them peaches. I can't remember them rules. 

7. That are farm is sandy, I like this ere best. 



I32 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

8. He might of helped me. They should of told you. 

9. He reads slow and distinct. The whisper was scarce 
audible. 

10. The country looks beautifully after a shower. 

11. I am tolerable well I thank you. He speaks fluent. 

12. You seem to feel poetically. Things look favorably. 

EXERCISE 76. 
Caution 2. Tense forms should denote time in harmony 
with that indicated by other parts of the sentence, and in 
compound sentences they should generally be alike. 

1. That custom has been formerly quite popular. 

2. They will not be persuaded though one rose from the 
dead. 

3. He that was dead sat up and began to speak. 

4. I should say that it was an hour's ride. 

5. If I had have seen him I should have known him. 

6. We should be obliged, if you will favor us with a song. 

7. I intended to have called and hoped to have seen 
you. 

8. I should not have let you eaten it. 

9. I should have liked to have seen it. 

10. He would not have dared done that. 

11. You ought to have helped me to have done it. 

12. We expected that he would have arrived last night. 

EXERCISE 77- 

Correct the following errors and give your reasons: 

1. They proposed to have visited Paris the next year. 

2. After I learned my lesson I took a walk. 

3. We was absent for these past two weeks. 

4. He was under obligations to have assisted me. 

5. He will remain here, if he could find-employment. 

6. They would believe this, if they can break away 
from prejudice. 

7. His step was firm, though he has seemed old. 

8. He declared himself to have been innocent. 

9. He pays his taxes and liveth honestly. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I33 

10. He was here last week and was long expected. 

11. Then did the officer seize him and executed him. 

12. Thou art the fellow who was at my house and hast 
stolen my watch. 

Caution S. Avoid the expression of general truths, 
or present facts in any other tense than the present. 

Exceptions. . If the speaker does not wish to vouch for 
the truth of a general proposition he sometimes uses the 
past tense, thus giving the statement the appearance of an 
indirect quotation; as, " He said that iron was the most valu- 
able of metals." 

The tense of a dependent verb is sometimes attracted into 
that of the principal verb; as, " I knew where the place was." 

EXERCISE 78. 
Correct the following errors, and give your reasons. 

1. I had never known before how short life was. 

2. I have already told you that I was a gentlemen. 

3. Our fathers held that all men were created equal. 

4. He demonstrated that the earth was round. 

5. What did you say was the capital of Chili? 

6. I should think it was time to hear from home. 

7. He did not know that brass was made of zinc and 
copper. 

8. I always thought that dew fell. 

9. He denied that the tides rose. 

10. What did you say her name was? 

11. Every one knows that air had weight. 

12. Heat will radiate best from rough substances. 

IMPROPER ARRANGEMENT. 
Caution. Place modifying words, phrases, and clauses 
as near as possible to the parts modified. 

EXERCISE 79- 
Correct the illy-arranged words in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. He was overcome totally by the sad intelligence. 



134 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Carefully scrutinize the sentiments he utters. 

3. We always are controlled by circumstances. 

4. I only saw him once. 

5. It not only has form but life. 

6. The good man not only deserves the respect but the 
love of his fellows. 

7. I only want one pencil. I only want to borrow your 
knife. 

8. I have thought of marrying often. He hopes to 
rapidly recruit. 

9. He only eats three meals a v day. 

10. His sagacity almost appears miraculous. 

11. They were nearly dressed alike. 

12. Edward has a new pair of boots. 

EXERCISE 8o. 

Correct improper arrangement of phrases: 

1. Wanted a young man to take care of horses of a 
religious turn of mind. 

2. He went to town driving a flock of sheep on horse- 
back. 

3. The lady was sewing with a Roman nose. 

4. That boy is whispering with red hair. 

5. Notice. — A lecture on theatre-going at eleven o'clock. 

6. Reason is a ray darted into the soul of divinity. 

7. Here we saw two men digging a well with straw 
hats. 

8. Wanted a saddle horse for a lady weighing about 
1,000 pounds. 

9. Wanted a girl to deliver clothes with a small cart, 
aged about fourteen years. 

10. For sale a bedstead for a single gentleman with 
mahogany legs. 

11. There is a man in our town with one eye named 
Thompson. 

12. There is a young lady coming down street, riding 
a horse with a blue skirt. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I35 

EXERCISE 81. 

Correct the arrangement of the following sentences: 

1. Mr. French needs a surgeon who has broken his 
arm. 

2. The figs were in small wooden boxes which we ate. 

3. Found a silver fruit knife by a child which has a 
broken back. 

4. He needs no spectacles that cannot see. 

5. He needs no boots that cannot walk. 

6. Did you take that book to the library which I loaned 
you? 

7. A purse was picked up by a boy which was made of 
leather. 

8. Say to him if he is wrong he should retrace his 
steps. 

9. Tell him I do not wish to see him, if he is in the 
parlor. 

10. A child was run over by a wagon, wearing bronze 
boots and a pink dress that never spoke afterward. 

11. The barber was shot while shaving his customer with 
a brass-barreled pistol. 

12. By a recent explosion a woman was killed, while 
cooking her husband's breakfast, in a horrible manner. 

WORDS VARIOUSLY CLASSIFIED. 

FOR REFERENCE. 

The same word may perform different offices in different 
sentences; but, wherever found, it should be classified and 
parsed according to the office it there performs. 

EXAMPLES. 

A Adjective: "A beautiful face." 

Preposition: " I go a fishing." 
About Adverb: " He wanders about." 

Preposition: " We talked about the. weather." 



I36 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Above. . . Preposition: " Above the ground." 

Adverb: " He soars above." 
Adjective: "The above remarks;" "The sky 
above!' 

Adieu Noun: " He bade me adieu" 

Interjection: "Adieu! Adieii! my native land." 

After Adverb: " I left soon after!' 

Preposition: "He ran after me." 

Adjective: " He was in the after part of the 

ship." 
Conjunctive adverb: " He came after yow left." 

Alike Adjective: " Those girls look alike!' 

Adverb: "I am alike pleased with both." 

All Adjective: "All men are mortal." 

Adjective pronoun: "All of the party were 

there." 
Noun: " I have lost my all!' 
Adverb: "All around the world." 

Any Adjective: "Any age;" "Auy complaint." 

Adjective pronoun: "liany, speak." 
Adverb: "Are you any better? " 

As Adverb (simple) : "As black as night." 

Adverb (conjunctive): "He spoke as we en- 
tered." 
Conjunction: "As he was ambitious I slew 

him." 
Relative pronoun: " Such as I have give I unto 
thee." 
Supply it in parsing: As follows, as appears, as concerns. 

Before Adverb: " He went before." 

Preposition: "The hills rise before him." 
Conjunction: "They kneeled before they 
fought." 

Below Preposition: " High life below stairs. 

Adverb: " Go below." 

Adjective: " He is in one of the offices below!' 

Noun: " I came from belozv." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 37 

Best Noun: " Now, do your best." 

Adjective: " Covet the best gifts." 

Adverb: " Who can best work, can best agree." 

Adverbial phra.se: "Tones he loved the best." 

Beside Preposition: " Sit beside me." 

Adverb: " Beloved of heaven o'er all the world 
beside." 

Better Noun: " They scorn their betters." 

Verb: " Love betters what is best." 

Adjective: " The gray mare is the better beast." 

Adverb: " Ne'er was monarch better served." 

Both Adjective: " Hear both sides." 

Adjective pronoun: "Both of them made a cov- 
enant." 
Conjunction : " She is both young and beautiful." 

But Preposition: "All but him had fled." 

Conjunction: " I go but I return." 
Adverb: " 'Tis but a little faded flower." 
" But " is sometimes used with the force of a relative pro- 
noun combined with a negative; as, 

" There is no fireside howsoe'er defended 
But has one vacant chair." — Longfellow. 
In this example but is equivalent to that not. 

Each Adjective: "They searched each house." 

Adjective pronoun: "Each wen^his way." 
"They resemble each other." Parse " each"^tis being in 
apposition with they, or each other as a compound word. 

Else Adjective: "Any one else." 

Adverb: " Where else can peace be found." 
Conjunction: "He must be sick else he would 
have written." 

Enough Noun: " I have enoughs 

Adjective: "I have trouble e?wugh." 
Adverb: " He has been punished enough." 

Ere Preposition: "And ere another evening's close. " 

Conjunction: " He died ere we could arrive." 

Except Verb: " Which he would not except to." 

Preposition: " I see nothing except the sky." 



I38 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Conjunction: "Except the Lord build they labor 
in vain." 
Far Noun: " He came fr om far." 

Adjective: "We become from a far country." 

Adverb: "And fast and far we fled." 
Farewell Noun: "A last farewell." 

Adjective: " Fatti's farewell concert." 

Interjection: "Farewell!" 
Fast Verb: " Thou didst fast and weep." 

Noun: "We kept an annual fast." 

Adjective: " He is my fast friend." 

Adverb: "We will bind n\m fast." 
Few Adjective pronoun: "A few escaped." 

Adjective: " We have afezv copies left.' 
For Preposition : " He works for us." 

Conjunction: " Give thanks to the Lord for he 
is good." 
Full Noun: " The full of the moon." 

Adverb: " He spake full well." 

Adjective: "A full supply." 

Verb: " The moon fulls to-night." 
Hard Adjective: " This is hard work." 

Adverb: " He works hard." 
However . ...Adverb: "Death spares none however power- 
ful." 

Conjunction: "He will work however difficult 
it may be." 
Ill Noun : " Throw off the ills of life." 

Adjective:' " I was quite ill." 

Adverb: "/// fares the land." 
Late Adjective: "A late frost injured the garden." 

Adverb: " He studied early and late." 
Like . .* Verb: " I like frank people." 

Noun: "Like loves like." 

Adjective: " We have like chances." 

Preposition: "Nature all blooming/^ thee." 

Low Adjective : " He is very low this evening." 

Adverb: " Aim low." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 39 

More Adjective pronoun: " Have you any more?" 

Adjective: " We want more men." 

Adverb: "Sleep no more." 

Much Adjective pronoun: "They made much of a 

little." 

Adjective: " He displayed much learning." 

Adverb: " I am much disheartened." 
Near ... . . .Adjective: " The ?iear approach of winter." 

Adverb: " Come near." 

Preposition: " He sat 7iear me." 
Needs ..... .Noun: " My needs are small." 

Adverb: " He ?ieeds must go." 

Verb: " He needs food." 
No Noun : " The noes have it." 

Adjective: "This is no place for mirth." 

Adverb: " I can walk no faster." 
Now Noun : " Now is the accepted time." 

Adverb: " Come now." 

Expletive adverb: "Now, Barabbas was a rob- 
ber." 
Off Adjective: "The off ox should keep the fur- 
row." 

Adverb: " He fell off the load." 
Once Noun: " Forgive me just this o?ice." 

Adverb: " He visits us once a year." 
Only Adjective: " Is this the only hotel in town? " 

Adverb: " I sing only ; I cannot play." 
Over Adverb: " They passed over." 

Preposition: " Drive over the bridge." 
Right Noun: " The right will prevail." 

Adjective: " The right man in the right place." 

Adverb: " Let thine eyes look right on." * 
So Adverb: " Why are you so angry? " 

Conjunction: " He was not there so we went 
away." 
That Adjective: " Watch that man." 

Relative pronoun: "The man that hath no 
music in himself." 



140 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Adjective pronoun: "This house is mine, that 

is his." 
Conjunction: " We believe that the earth is 
round." 

The Adjective: " The ships sailed on." 

Adverbial phrase: " The more, the better." 

Then Noun: " Alas, the change, 'twixt now and then." 

Adverb: " We then ascended the stairs." 
Conjunction: "If you do not want it then 
leave it." 

There Adverb: " We live there." 

Expletive: " There v/as much grass there." 

Till Noun: "The money is in the till" 

Verb: " We till our fields." 
Preposition: "Stay//// Monday." 
Conjunction: " Stay till I return." 

Well Noun: " The well'xs deep." 

Adverb: " They worked well." 
Adjective: "She is not zvell." 

What Interrogative pronoun: " What did he say?" 

Relative pronoun: " He obtained what he 

sought." 
Adjective: "What sufferings we endured." 
Adverb: " What by force and zvhat by fraud." 
Interjection: " What! Did Caesar swoon? " 

When Noun: " Since when was it? " 

Adverb: " When you were there." 
Conjunctive adverb: " Write, when you reach 
home." 

Which Relative pronoun: " The house in which I live." 

Interrogative pronoun: " Which house is it?" 
Adjective: " At which time he was in com- 
mand." 

While Noun: " That is worth while." 

Verb: " We whiled away the time." 
Conjunctive adverb: "I will watch while you 
sleep." 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I4I 

Worth Noun: " Worth makes the man." 

Verb: " Woe worth the day." 

Adjective: " He is worth a million." 
Yet Adverb: " Our country yet remains." 

Conjunction: " Defeated yet not conquered." 
Yonder Adjective: " Yonder mountain." 

Adverb: " Who beckons yo?iderf " 




PART II. 
Punctuation. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I45 



PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation, though a valuable art and easily acquired, 
is often neglected by letter-writers, much to the detriment 
of their letters and the vexation of their correspondents. 

Punctuation not only serves to make an author's mean- 
ing plain, but often saves it from being entirely miscon- 
ceived. There are many cases in which a change of points 
completely alters the sentiment. 

An English statesman once took advantage of this fact, 
to free himself from an embarrassing position. Having 
charged an officer of government with dishonesty, he was 
required by Parliament, under a heavy penalty, publicly to 
retract the accusation in the House of Commons. At the 
appointed time he appeared with a written recantation, 
which he read aloud as follows: " I said he was dishonest, it 
is true; and I am sorry for it." This was satisfactory; but 
what was the surprise of Parliament, the following day, to 
see the retraction printed in the paper thus: " I said he was 
dishonest; it is true, and I am sorry for it! " 

By a simple transposition of the comma and semicolon, 
the ingenious slanderer represented himself to the country, 
not only as having made no recantation, but even as having 
reiterated the charge in the very face of Parliament. 

It is objected to the study of punctuation that good 
usage differs widely in this respect and that it is impossible 
to lay down fixed rules on the subject. 

To a certain extent it is true that usage differs. Punctu- 
ation is an art in which there is great room for the exercise 
of taste; and tastes will vary in this as well as in everything 
else. Yet it is equally true that, as an art, it is founded on 

certain great and definite principles; and that, while con- 
10 



I46 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

siderable latitude is allowed in the application of these, 
whatever directly violates them is wrong and inadmissible. 
In conclusion, let the learner bear in mind this rule: 
Never introduce a point unless you have some positive rule 
for so doing. Your tendency will be to introduce too many 
points. 

PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing written discourse into 
sections by means of points, for the purpose of showing the 
grammatical connection and dependence, and of making the 
meaning more clear. 

Punctuation was unknown to the ancients. About 250 
years before Christ, Aristophanes, a grammarian at Alexan- 
dria, introduced a few points; but they did not come into 
general use till the year 1500, when Aldus Minutius, a 
learned printer of Venice, reduced the matter of pointing to 
a system, and by the extreme beauty and accuracy of his 
editions brought it into general use. 

Before his time, written composition resembled this: 
" readingmakethafullmanconferenceaready manwritinganex- 
actman." 

How different from this: " Reading maketh a full man; 
conference a ready man; writing an exact man." 

The word Punctiiatio?i is derived from the Latin "punctus,* 1 
a point. The points in most common use number six, as 
follows: 

Comma Period 

Semicolon ; Exclamation Point ! 

Colon : Interrogation Point. .. . ? 

There are other characters in daily use in writing and 
printing, which, while not points, may be mentioned in the 
same connection. They are the dash ( — ), the hyphen(-), 
apostrophe ('), quotation marks (" "), parentheses (), brack- 
ets [J, brace (~*—~ ), and marks of reference (*tt§!IH)- 

The general rule for the use of the points may be stated 
briefly thus: the Period, except when used to mark an 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. I47 

abbreviation, denotes the greatest separation of all, the parts 
between which it is placed being grammatically independ- 
ent of each other. 

The Colon denotes a separation somewhat less than that 
of the Period; the Semicolon less than that of the Colon, 
and the Comma, less than that of the Semicolon. 

The Interrogation and Exclamation, though generally- 
held equivalent to the Period, may be equivalent to a Comma, 
a Semicolon, a Colon, or a Period according to circumstances. 

The word Comma is derived from the Greek and denotes 
something cutoff, a section. 

GENERAL RULE. 

The Comma is used ( i) to mark the omission of something 
understood, (2) to denote the insertion of some word or ex- 
pression that has been thrown into the sentence, and (3) to 
show that an expression is out of its natural order. 

EXAMPLES OF OMISSION. 

1,344,256. In the expression of this number, the words 
million and thousands are omitted, and the omission is 
marked by the comma. 

Chicago, Cook Co., Ill, Nov. 30, i895- In this letter 
heading, the words in, in, written on and in the year are under- 
stood, their omission being shown by the commas. 

EXERCISE 85. 

Insert commas where they are needed in the following 
examples: 

1. 1628452. 2385625204. 1008. 1000006. 

2. Lima Genesee Co. N. Y. April 15 1895. 

3. Richmond Va. April 15 1895. Woodstock McHenry 
Co. 111. 

4. Detroit Mich. April 15 1895. Portland Me. March 1 
1895. 

5. 735 State St. Chicago 111. Galva Henry Co. 111. 

6. Box 18 Times Office New York City N. Y. 



I48 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

7. 1385 Madison St. Chicago W. D. May 5 1895. 

8. Henry Howard Esq. Charleston S. C. 

9. Messrs. Fairbanks & Co. 46 Madison St. Chicago 111. 
10. Messrs. Field Leiter & Co. State St. Chicago 111. 

EXERCISE 86. 

Insert commas where required: 

1. Married April 5 1895 in Syracuse N. Y. by the Rev. 
S. S. Smith Henry J. Wilkes and Emma F. Lane. 

2. He was brave wise pious patriotic. 

3. He was a brave wise pious and patriotic man. 

4. To right to left above below he whirled his rapid 
sword. 

5. The address was beautifully elegantly and forcibly 
written. 

6. The beautiful dark blue sky was seen. 

7. William Henry and John have come. 

8. The sloops Idler Rover Star and Crescent are here. 

9. Mary Helen and Julia are here. 

10. The Star and Crescent and Hawk and Hounds are 
good hotels. 

Note. Avoid inserting commas where none are required, 
as in Example 6, above. 

Where a series of words in the same construction has one 
or more of the connectives omitted, commas should be 
inserted as if all the connectives were omitted; otherwise, a 
misconstruction may occur. See Exercises 7 and 9, above. 

EXERCISE 87. 

Insert commas where required: 

1. He has houses lands stocks and gold; yet he thinks 
himself destitute penniless and on the verge of ruin. 

2. He has wit wisdom and gold ; yet he longs for applause 
fame and power. 

3. She is amiable intelligent and virtuous; but she lacks 
beauty rank and wealth. 

4. The farm is fertile well watered and in a good location: 
but the neighbors are ignorant rough and vicious. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 49 

5. Hedges groves and orchards were in bloom. 

6. Our captain went to the camp called upon the officer 
in command and informed him who we were whence we had 
come and whither we intended to go. 

7. In the dead of night with a chosen band under 
cover of a flag of truce he approached. 

8. Days years months and ages shall circle away. 

9. Animals see hear feel smell and taste. 

10. A pair of old shabby and dirty white kid gloves 
were drawn on. 

EXAMPLES OF INSERTION. 
EXERCISE 88. 

Insert commas where required: 

1. Accept my dear young friends this expression of 
my regard. 

2. I beg sir to acknowledge the receipt of your favor. 

3. I rise Mr. President to a point of order. 

4. Show pity Lord! O Lord forgive. 

5. Remember sir you cannot have it. 

6. Really Mr. Lamb you come very late. 

7. I remain sir your obedient servant. 

8. Flow gently sweet Afton among thy green braes. 

9. This book Mary is yours. 

10. He invented it is said the theory of moral science. 

EXERCISE 89. 

Insert commas where they are required: 

1. That excitement too was of the most dangerous 
kind. 

2. Their predecessors it is true were as bad critics 
as themselves. 

3. I took notice in particular of a very profligate fellow. 

4. Caoutchouc or India-rubber is obtained from the 
sap of a tree. 

5. New York on the contrary abounds in'men of wealth. 



150 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Lee did not however follow Washington's orders. 

7. This principle in fact needs no proof. 

8. Boast not my dear friend of to-morrow. 

9. There is at Jerusalem by the sheep-market a pool. 
10. Pizarro the conqueror of Peru was a Spaniard. 

Rem. 1. An explanatory term, when it restricts the 
modified term, or combines closely with it, is not set off 
by the comma; Webster the great statesma?i is sometimes 
confounded with Webster the great lexicographer. The name 
Webster is here restricted by the italicized words, and these 
should not be set off by a comma. 

Rem. 2. Nouns in apposition, unmodified, or modified 
by the only, are not separated by commas ; as, "Thomson the 
poet was indolent;" if, however, the appositive word or 
expression is introduced by as or or, it should be set off. 

EXERCISE 90. 

Insert commas where they are needed in the following 
sentences: 

1. The Emperor Nero was a cruel tyrant. 

2. Take O boatman thrice thy fee. 

3. So that he as God sitteth in the temple of God. 

4. Maize or Indian corn is a production of the United 
States. 

5. The poet Spenser lived in the reign of Elizabeth. 

6. My son Joseph has entered college. 

7. Mecca a city in Arabia is sacred to the Moham- 
medans. 

8. Constantinople the capital of Turkey is an ancient 
city. 

9. Columbus who was a Genoese discovered America. 
10. The Franks a warlike people of Germany gave their 

name to France. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 5 1 

EXAMPLES OF INVERSION. 

EXERCISE 91. 

Insert commas where they are required: 

1. Whom ye ignorantly worship Him declare I unto 
you. 

2. In 1837 Hawthorne issued. a volume entitled Twice- 
told Tales. 

3. When it is red-hot glass bends easily. 

4. If we use household words we shall be better under- 
stood. 

5. That the world moves no one doubts. 

6. In i860 Lincoln was elected president of the United 
States. 

7. When he took the presidential chair he found half 
the nation in rebellion. 

8. When Caesar had crossed the Rubicon Pompey pre- 
pared for battle. 

9. If you remain here you will suffer from cold. 
10. Really I think that you are the man. 

Rem. 1. A transposed objective word element is not 
usually set off by a comma. 

Rem. 2. When an inverted expression begins with it is 
or only it is not set off by a comma; as, " It is a pleasant thing 
to see the sun;" "Only on slight occasions they felt disposed 
to be merciful." 

SPECIAL RULES. 

RULE 1. 

The clauses of Complex Sentences should be separated 
by commas, unless the dependent clauses are very short and 
the connection very close. 

Rem. 1. Many of the examples under this rule may be 
punctuated in accordance with the general rule already 
given. 

Rem. 2. Close attention must be given to the difference 
between Restrictive and Non-restrictive clauses. The non- 



I52 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

restrictive clause is set off by commas; the restrictive clause 
is not set off. 

For example: The scholar, who loves his books, is to be 
envied. This means that all scholars love their books and all 
are to be envied; but take the word "scholar" in the sense 
of pupil, as it is quite often used and we may write: The 
scholar who loves his books is to be envied, meaning that 
there are scholars who do not love their books, and restrict- 
ing the class to be envied to those who do love them. 

Sometimes, the use of a comma will change the entire 
meaning of a sentence. Notice the following: " There 
were very few passengers, who escaped without serious in- 
jury." This means that there were but few passengers on 
the train, and that none of them were seriously injured. 
Remove the comma and the sentence means that nearly all 
the passengers were seriously injured. 

Rem. 3. In a dependent relative clause, notice whether 
you can substitute and it, and he, a?idthey, etc., for the rela- 
tive and still preserve the meaning of the sentence; if you 
can do this the clause is non-restrictive and should be set 
off by a comma. 

Rem. 4. In a restrictive clause, that is generally pre- 
ferred when it will sound as well as who or which. When 
the clause is non-restrictive, who or which is generally pre- 
ferred to that. 

Rem. 5. A noun clause used in predicate is generally 
set off by a comma. 

Rem. 6. A clause used as a subject, if it ends with a 
verb, should be separated from the predicate by a comma. 

Rem. 7. A complex subject, if long, should be separated 
from the predicate by a comma. 

Rem. 8. Correlative clauses, unless joined by as or than, 
should be separated by commas. 

EXERCISE 92. 

Insert commas, wherever required, in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. Things which are seen are temporal. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 53 

2. Things which are seen appeal more directly to the 
child than words which are only heard. 

3. The man who laughed was the thief. 

4. He handed it to the man who laughed and tossed it 
into the air. 

5. It was the necessity which made me a quarrier that 
taught me to be a geologist. 

6. When it is the head of the family who is usually the 
bread-winner that is laid prostrate all goes wrong. 

7. I met him in Paris when I was abroad. 

8. Glass bends easily when it is red hot. 

9. I will not call him villain because it would be un- 
parliamentary. 

10. Leaves do not turn red because the frosttouchesthem. 
EXERCISE 93- 
Insert commas where they are needed in the following 
sentences: 

1. It will break if you touch it. 

2. It is easy for you Mistress Dial who have always as 
everybody knows set yourself above me to accuse one of 
laziness. 

3. The earth is enveloped by an ocean of air which is a 
compound of oxygen and nitrogen. 

4. Longfellow who is the most popular American poet 
has written beautiful prose. 

5. The pupil who is diligent will receive a reward from 
his teacher. 

6. Her hair which hung in ringlets was dark and glossy. 

7. A purse that is made of leather will last a long time. 

8. They who do all that they can do enough. 

9. Solomon who built the temple was the son of David. 
10. Boys learning to swim should take lessons from the 

frog. 

EXERCISE 94. 
Insert commas where needed in the following: 
1. France anciently called Gaul derived its name from 

the Franks. 



154 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Those fighting custom with grammar are foolish. 

3. Rivers rising west of the Rocky Mountains flow into 
the Pacific. 

4. Our conclusion is that a whale is not a fish. 

5. The belief of the Sadducees was that there is no res- 
urrection of the dead. 

6. A childish belief is that Santa Claus brings presents. 

7. An author who is ignorant of the art of punctuation 
cannot be readily understood. 

8. There are many painters poets and statesmen whom 
chance has rendered famous. 

9. Whatever is is right was his reply. 
10. Whosoever perseveres will succeed. 

SPECIAL RULE 2. 

When a direct quotation making complete sense, or a 
direct question, is introduced into a sentence, it should 
begin with a capital, and should generally be set off by the 
comma. 

Rem. 1 . Quotations formally introduced are preceded 
by the colon. 

Rem. 2. To show that we are using the words of 
another we use quotation marks; as, Did he say " I will not 
go?" 

A quotation within a quotation is set off by single quota- 
tion marks; as, " 'War, war,' is still the cry; 'war even to 
the knife.' " 

EXERCISE 95- 

Correct the following sentences, using capitals, quotation 
marks, and commas where they are needed: 

1. Goldsmith says learn the luxury of doing good. 

2. He asked why are you so melancholy? 

3. Oh Mr. Pickwick said Mrs. Bardell you're very kind 
sir. 

4. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of 
doing good. 

5. Lowell asks what is so rare as a day in June? 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 155 

6. What is so rare as a day in June asks Lowell. 

7. Lowell asks whether anything so rare as a day in 
June can be named. 

8. Will you go? said he or will you stay? 

9. Which is more six inches square or six square inches ? 
he asked 

10. The ballad of Chevy Chase said Sir Philip Sydney 
stirs the heart like the sound of a trumpet. 

SPECIAL RULE 3. 

Short members of compound sentences, connected by 
and, but, or, nor, for, because, whereas, that expressing purpose, 
so that, in order that, and other conjunctions must be sepa- 
rated by the comma. 

Rem. 1. When the members are long, or contain parts 
subdivided by commas, they are separated by the semi- 
colon. 

Rem. 2. Place no comma before that when not equiva- 
lent to in order that nor before than and whether. 

Rem. 3. The conjunctions and, but, or, and nor, connect- 
ing parts of a compound predicate, require commas before 
them, unless those parts are very short and closely con- 
nected. 

Rem. 4. Place no comma before and and or, when they 
connect words that are the same part of speech, but if one 
of the words has a modifier that does not belong to the 
other, the comma must be used. 

EXERCISE 96. 

Insert commas where required in the following sen- 
tences: 

1. Educate men and you keep them from crime. 

2. Be temperate in youth or you must be abstinent in 
old age. 

3. Be virtuous that you may be respected. 

4. Traveling is beneficial because it enlarges our ideas. 

5. The Ship of State is soon wrecked unless honesty is 
at the helm. 



I56 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

6. Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty. 

7. The record is lost so that we cannot decide the 
point. 

8. Anger glances into the breast of a wise man but it 
rests only in the bosom of fools. 

0. Love flies out at the window when poverty enters 
the door. 

10. Week followed week until at last Columbus and his 
followers were thousands of miles from their native shore. 

EXERCISE 97- 

See Remarks. 

Insert commas where they are needed in the following 
sentences: 

1. He said that he would come. 

2. Honest poverty is better than fraudulent wealth. 

3. It is easier to excite the passions of a mob than to 
calm them. 

4. I love not the woman that is vain of her beauty or 
the man that prides himself on his wisdom. 

5. We can neither esteem a mean man nor honor a 
deceitful one. 

6. Here I and sorrow sit. 

7. I have seven brave sons and daughters. 

8. In the bazaar may be seen tons of ice and vast quan- 
tities of ivory from Africa. 

9. He is entitled to the annual crops and wood for fuel. 
10. The relative pronoun who is applied to persons and 

things personified. 

SPECIAL RULE 4. 

When two or more antecedent portions of a sentence 
have a common connection with some succeeding clause or 
word, a comma must be placed after each; as, " She is as tall, 
though not so handsome, as her sister." 

Rem. 1. Commas are frequently required, under this 
rule, after different prepositions governing the same sub- 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 57 

stantives; as, " They were fitted for, and accustomed to, very 
different modes of life." 

Rem. 2. Under this rule two or more antecedents be- 
longing to the same relative pronoun should be set off by 
commas to show that the relative belongs equally to each. 

SPECIAL RULE 5. 

Words used in pairs take a comma after each pair; as, 
" Ignorant and superstitious, cunning and vicious, deceitful 
and treacherous, the natives of this island are among the 
most degraded of mankind." 

SPECIAL RULE 6. 

Words repeated for the sake of emphasis must be set off, 
with their adjuncts, if they have any, by the comma; as, 
"Verily, verily, I say unto you." 

SPECIAL RULE 7. 

A comma must be placed before to, the sign of the Infini- 
tive Mode, when it is equivalent to in order to ; as, " He sent 
his son to Bryant's College, to secure a business education." 

SPECIAL RULE 8. 

Members of sentences, containing correlative adverbs and 
conjunctions, are separated by the comma. 

Rem. The comma, however, is generally omitted in the 
case of so that, so as, rather than, and more than, especially 
when the parts they connect are clauses and not members; 
unless the related parts contain subdivisions separated by 
the comma, in which case, place a comma before the last 
correlative term. 

EXERCISE 98. 

Insert commas where they are required: 

1. This doctrine is founded upon and is consistent with 
truth. 

2. The oxygen nitrogen and carbonic acid which unite 
to form the atmosphere are unequally mingled. 



I58 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Sink or swim survive or perish I am for the Decla- 
ration. 

4. I M take thee N to be my wedded wife to have and to 
hold for better for worse for richer for poorer in sickness 
and health to love and to cherish till death do us part. 

5. Lend lend your wings. I mount I fly. 

6. Some shriek shriek madly in the whirling gulf. 

7. He comes to heal the sick and set the captives free. 

8. He is so unwell weak and exhausted that he cannot 
work. 

9. So think speak and act as to gain the respect of men. 
10. The Laplander would rather live in his own land 

than in any other. 

GENERAL RULE FINAL. 

A comma must be used, even when not required by the 
grammatical construction, wherever it serves to develop the 
sense or prevent ambiguity. 

Bern. When you are in doubt as to the propriety of 
inserting commas, omit them; it is better to have too few 
than too many. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation greater 
than that denoted by the comma. 

RULE I. 

A semicolon should be used before as, namely, to wit, viz., 
introducing an example or an illustration. 

Example — "Some divide the period of the world into 
four ages; viz., the golden age, the silver age, the brazen 
age, and the iron age." 

RULE 2. 

The semicolon is used to separate the members of a com- 
pound sentence, when the connective is omitted; but, if the 
members be long, or if their parts are set off by commas, the 
members should be separated by semicolons even when 
joined by connectives. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 1 59 

RULE 3. 

Successive clauses having a common dependence should 
be separated by semicolons. 

Example — "If we neglected no opportunity of doing 
good; if we fed the hungry and ministered to the sick; if 
we gave up our own luxuries, to secure comfort for the des- 
titute; though no man might be aware of our generosity, 
yet in the applause of our own conscience we would have 
an ample reward." 

Rem. If the clauses be short they may be separated by 
commas. 

RULE 4. 

An inferential, contrasted, or explanatory clause, intro- 
duced by for, but, and, ox an equivalent connective, is usually 
set off by a semicolon. 

EXERCISE 99- 

Insert commas and semicolons where they are needed in 
the following examples: 

1. The Jews ruin themselves at their Passover the 
Moors at their marriages and the Christians in their law- 
suits. 

2. The porcupine is fond of climbing trees and for this 
purpose he is furnished with very long claws. 

3. The true order of learning should be as follows first 
what is necessary second what is useful and third what is 
ornamental. 

4. An enigma is a dark saying an obscure question or 
riddle. 

5. Wit is abrupt darting scornful and tosses its analo- 
gies in your face humor is slow and shy insinuating its fun 
into your heart. 

6. Never value yourself upon your fortune for this is a 
sign of a weak mind. 

7. He has two farms namely a large one and a small 
one. 

8. I take no notice of his brutal conduct I do not speak 
of his treachery and malice. 



l60 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

9. The duties of man are two-fold first those that he 
owes to his Creator secondly those due to his fellows. 

10. When I have gone from earth when my place is 
vacant when my pilgrimage is over will a faithful heart still 
keep my memory green? 

THE COLON. 
RULE i. 

A colon must be placed between the great divisions of 
sentences, when there are minor divisions separated by semi- 
colons 

Example — " We perceive the shadow to have moved 
along the dial, but we did not see it moving; we observe 
that the grass has grown, though it was impossible to see it 
grow: So, the advances we make in knowledge, consisting 
of minute and gradual steps, are perceivable only after inter- 
vals of time." 

RULE 2. 

A colon must be placed before a formal enumeration of 
particulars, and a direct quotation, when referred to by the 
words thus, following, as follows, this, these, etc.; as, " Man con- 
sists of three parts: first, the body with its sensual appetites; 
second, the mind, with its thirst for knowledge and other 
noble inspirations; third, the soul, with its undying princi- 
ple." 

Rem. 1. By " a formal enumeration" is meant one in 
which the particulars are introduced by the words first, 
secondly, or similar terms. 

In this case, a colon is placed before the first, and the 
objects enumerated are separated from each other by semi- 
colons. If merely the names of the particulars are given 
without any formal introductory words, commas are placed 
between them, and a semicolon is used before the first; as, 
"Grammar is divided into four parts; Orthography, Etymol- 
ogy, Syntax and Prosody." 

Rem. 2. If a quoted passage is introduced by that, or if 
it is short and incorporated in the middle of a sentence, a 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. l6l 

colon is not used; as, " Remember that ' one to-day is worth 
two to-morrows.' " 

RULE 3. 

A colon may be placed between the members of a com- 
pound sentence, when there is no conjunction between them 
and the connection is slight. 

Rem. With regard to the cases falling under this rule, 
usage is divided. Many good authorities prefer a semicolon; 
while others use a period, and commence a new sentence with 
what follows. 

THE PERIOD. 
RULE 1. 

A period must be placed after every declarative and im- 
perative sentence; as, " Honesty is the best policy." "Fear 
God." 

RULE 2. 

A period must be placed after every abbreviated word; 
as, Dr. Geo. F. Johnson, F. R. S. 

Rem. 1. The period in this case merely indicates the ab- 
breviation and does not take the place of other stops; as, 
Horace Jones, Jr., M. D., LL. D. 

Rem. 2. When an abbreviated word ends a sentence 
only one period must be used. 

Rem. 3. Under this head fall Roman capitals and small 
letters used as figures; as, Charles I. was the son of James I. 

Rem. 4>. An exception to this rule must be noted. 
When an abbreviated word is of such constant occurrence 
that it has become a component part of our language, no 
period is placed after it. Thus we put no period after eve 
abbreviated from evening, or hack from hackney. So when 
the first syllable of a Christian or given name is used, not as 
an abbreviation for the name, but as a familiar substitute for 
it, no period must be employed; as, " Ben Jonson." 



l62 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

INTERROGATION POINT. 
RULE. 

An interrogation point must be placed after every inter- 
rogative sentence, member, and clause. 

Rem. 1. When a question is composed of several parts, 
and when several questions are contained in one sentence, 
one answer only being required, the interrogation point is 
placed only at the end. 

Rem. 2. The interrogation point should be used after 
each successive particular of a series of questions, related in 
sense but distinct in construction; as, "Why was the French 
revolution so bloody and destructive? Why was our revo- 
lution of 164 1 comparatively mild? Why was the revolu- 
tion of 1688 milder still? Why was the American revolu- 
tion the mildest of all? " 

Rem. 3. The interrogation in parentheses is sometimes 
placed in sentences, to indicate doubt of assertions, or to 
show that they are not to be taken literally; as, " Her beauty 
(?) made her the center of attraction." 

THE EXCLAMATION POINT. 
RULE 1. 

An exclamation point must be placed after every exclam- 
atory sentence, member, clause, or expression. 
RULE 2. 

An exclamation point must be placed after every inter- 
jection except O; as, Ah! alas! hold! 

Rem. 1. The interjections O and oh differ in these re- 
spects: the former is used only before the names of objects 
addressed or invoked, is not immediately followed by an 
exclamation point, and must always be a capital; the latter 
is used by itself to denote different emotions of the mind, 
has an exclamation point after it, and begins with a small 
letter except at the commencement of a sentence. 

Rem. 2. Two interrogative interjections eh and hey are 
usually followed by an interrogation point; as, "You think 
it suits my complexion, hey?" 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 163 

Rem. 3. More than one exclamation point may be 
placed after a sentence or expression, to denote an extraor- 
dinary degree of emotion. As a general thing this repeti- 
tion is confined to humorous and satirical composition. 

THE DASH. 

The Dash is a straight horizontal line, placed between 
the parts of a sentence. 

RULE 1. 

The dash should be used where there is a sudden break 
or stop in the sentence, or a change in its meaning or con- 
struction. 

Example — Dim — dim — I faint — darkness comes o'er my 
eyes. 

He stamped and he stormed — then his language! 

Miss frowned and blushed and then was — married. 

RULE 2. 

The dash is frequently used before words repeated in an 
emphatic manner; as, "Why should I speak of his neglect — 
neglect did I say? Call it rather contempt.'" 

RULE 3. 

The dash is used to denote the omission of letters from a 

word, or of figures in a series; as, L d B n; i. e., Lord 

Byron. Ps. xxxv., 6—10; i. e., Ps. xxxv., 6, 7, 8, 9, 10. 

MARKS OF PARENTHESIS. 

RULE. 

The curves should include those words only which may 
be omitted without injury to the sense, or without affecting 
the grammatical construction of the sentence. 

Rem. 1. When any point is required after the word pre- 
ceding a parenthesis, it should be placed after the second 
curve; as, " My gun was on my arm (as it always is in that 
district), but I let the stoat kill the rabbit." 



164 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

But should the parenthesis be a question or an exclama- 
tory expression, the point should be placed before the first 
curve, and that which belongs to the parenthesis before the 
second; as, " She had managed the matter so well, (oh, she 
was the most artful of women !) that my father's heart was 
gone before I suspected it was in danger." 

PARAGRAPH MAKING. 

A paragraph is a sentence or group of related sentences 
developing one point or division of a general subject. 

A paragraph should be made when there is a change in 
the subject of composition. 

The matter should be well considered, and personal 
judgment exercised. A paragraph is shown by placing the 
first word of your sentence a little to the right of your mar- 
ginal line. 

USE OF FIGURES. 

It is sometimes a question, what to put in figures, and 
what not. There are no established rules on the subject. 
The following are suggested for consideration: 

Place in Figures — Days of the month written after the 
name; sums indicating per cent; uneven sums of money over 
a dollar; prices, quantities or any sums in frequent appear- 
ance, as in market reports, price lists, etc.; street numbers 
of houses; years; hours of the day; large even sums of 
money; numbers of clauses or paragraphs enclosed in paren- 
theses. 

Spell Out — Ages; the day or the month written before 
the name; sums under a hundred appearing seldom; isolated 
even sums that may be expressed in not over two words; 
prices under a dollar and occasionally mentioned; figures 
beginning sentences; degrees of temperature or latitude or 
longitude under a hundred, the degree sign (°) not 
employed; numbers as names of streets; fractions infre- 
quently used. 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 165 

USE OF CAPITALS. 

RULES. 

I. Begin with a capital the first word of every sentence. 

II. The first word after an introductory word or clause 
may begin with a capital letter. 

Example — Resolved, "That the sum of $3000 be appro- 
priated " etc. 

III. Each new line or paragraph of an enumeration of 
particulars arranged in lines or paragraphs, should begin 
with a capital letter. 

Example — "These expenditures are in proportion to 
whole expenditures of government, 
In Austria, as thirty-three per cent: 
In France, as thirty-eight per cent: 
In Great Britain, as seventy-four per cent." 

IV. The first word of a direct quotation, or of an impor- 
tant statement, a distinct speech, etc., should begin with a 
capital letter. 

V. The first word of every line of poetry should begin 
with a capital letter. 

VI. Proper names of persons, places, months, days, etc., 
should begin with a capital letter. 

VII. Titles of honor or distinction, used alone or accom- 
panied by nouns should begin with capital letters. 

VIII. Begin with a capital each principal word in the 
titles of books and headings of chapters. 

IX. All appellations of the Deity should begin with 
capitals. 

Rem. A word that describes rather than denotes a 
name of the Deity and a pronoun whose expressed antece- 
dent is the name of the Deity usually require no capitals; 
as, "O thou merciful God!" "God provides for all his 
creatures." 

X. Nouns denoting the race or nation of individuals 
and words derived from those nouns should begin with cap- 
ital letters. 

Rem. When such words become common nouns by los- 



l66 AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

ing their reference to their original proper nouns, capitals 
are not used; as, a louis d'or; a guinea; china-ware. 

XI. Words of special importance may begin with capi- 
tals. 

XII. The pronoun /and the interjection should be 
capitals. 

GENERAL REMARKS. 

1. Indirect quotations, names of the seasons, points of 
the compass not indicating location, and heavens denoting 
the skies should begin with small letters. 

2. In writing compound names of places, usage is not 
uniform. When the parts remain separate or are joined by 
a hyphen both should be capitalized; when consolidated, 
but one capital should be used; as, New Castle, New-Castle, 
Newcastle. 

3. Use a small letter in all cases where these rules do 
not apply. When in doubt, use a small letter. 

EXERCISE 100. 

Insert points and capitalize wherever it is necessary: 

1. the town has expended the past year 

for grading streets $1 5000 

for public buildings $25000 

2. What has become of the mohegans the pequots and 
the iroquois 

3. Sir William herschel was born in 1783 at hanover 

4. our winter consists of three months december Jan- 
uary and february 

5. i don't like to study grammar i write correct enough 
now o how i wish school was out 

6. he said you are too impulsive 

7. i am the way the truth the life 

8. No no no said she greatly agitated he plagues you 
with no half views no criticism. 

9. A Spanish proverb says four persons are needed for 
the production of a good salad first a spendthrift for oil 



AN OUTLINE OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 167 

second a miser for vinegar third a counsellor for salt fourth 
a madman to stir it all up 

10. Most fashionable ladies says a plain spoken writer 
have two faces one face to sleep in and another to show in 
company the first is generally reserved for the husband and 
family at home the other is put on to please strangers 
abroad the family face is often indifferent enough but the 
outdoor one looks somewhat better. 

A PUNCTUATION PUZZLE. 

The following may be punctuated so as to present two 
entirely different meanings. Try it. 

He is an old and experienced man in vice and wicked- 
ness he is never found in opposing the works of iniquity he 
takes delight in the downfall of his neighbors he never 
rejoices in the prosperity of his fellow creatures he is always 
ready to assist in destroying the peace of society he takes 
no pleasure in serving the Lord he is uncommonly diligent 
in sowing discord among his friends and acquaintances he 
takes no pride in laboring to promote the cause of Christi- 
anity he has not been negligent in endeavoring to stigma- 
tize all public teachers he makes no effort to subdue his evil 
passions he strives hard to build up Satan's kingdom he 
lends no aid to the support of the gospel among the heathen 
he contributes largely to the devil he will never go to 
heaven he must go where he will receive the just recom- 
pense of reward. 



PART HI. 

Use of Language. 

Business Correspondence. 



note. 



THE following exercises in the use of language will 
serve as a review in Grammar. The teacher can, 
at his discretion, omit such lessons as from their primary 
nature are already sufficiently understood. 

Many erroneous sentences have been purposely in- 
corporated in these review exercises. The pupil should 
be required to correct all errors, giving a reason for 
every correction, and quoting in each case the principle 
in Grammar by which he is governed in making the 
change. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. I 1 /] 



USE OF LANGUAGE 



SENTENCES. 

A sentence is a group of words that either states or 
denies something, expresses a command, asks a question, or 
expresses strong and sudden emotion. Its words may be 
many or few; as, 

The sun is bright. He has not come. What time is it? 
Come here. Oh, how my head aches! Happily, the idea 
that no man can be a respectable or an honored member of 
society, unless he belongs to one of the learned professions, 
is no longer entertained. 

CAPITAL LETTERS. 

A very common fault in letters, as well as in all other 
kinds of written composition, is the improper use or the 
omission of capital letters. 

Sometimes, in the writing of those who like to display 
their penmanship, we find too many capitals used, but 
oftener we find nearly all the capitals discarded. 

Study attentively the following rules, and carefully apply 
them. 

RULES FOR CAPITAL LETTERS. 

1. The first word of every independent sentence, and 
the first word of every line of poetry, should begin with a 
capital. 

2. Proper names and words derived from proper names 
should begin with capitals. 

3. Names and titles of the Deity, and names of sacred 
books, should begin with capitals. 



172 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

4. The names of the months, the names of the days of 
the week, and the words North', South, East, and West, 
when they denote sections of the country, should begin with 
capitals. 

5. The pronoun I, and the interjection O, should be 
capitals. 

6. Every direct quotation should begin with a capital. 

7. Titles of honor or office, the names of religious 
denominations, and the principal words in the titles of books, 
should begin with capitals. 

8. Words of special importance, leading words in adver- 
tisements, and items in accounts, should begin with capitals. 

PUNCTUATION. 

There is among authors of repute such a diversity of 
usage, that it is sometimes asserted that there are no abso- 
lute rules of punctuation. 

This is a mistake; for, while many of the minor uses of 
points are left to the judgment and taste of the writer, there 
are certain absolute rules of punctuation whose application 
is not a matter of judgment, but of education; and, to violate 
them, shows, not peculiarity of taste, but ignorance. 

RULES FOR THE CLOSE OF SENTENCES. 

Every sentence should have at its close one of three 
marks: 

1. If the sentence asks a question, an interrogation 
point. (?) 

2. If the sentence is exclamatory, an exclamation 
point. (!) 

3. Otherwise, a sentence should close with a period. (.) 

EXERCISE I. 

1. Write a sentence stating something. 

2. Write a sentence denying something. 

3. Write a sentence expressing a command. 

4. Write a sentence asking a question. 

5. Write a sentence expressing strong emotion. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 173 

6. Write a sentence containing the name of Deity. 

7. Write a sentence containing the name of the day of 
the week and the name of the month on which you are 
writing. 

8. Write a sentence containing the pronoun I, and the 
interjection O. 

9. Write a sentence containing the names of three 
religious denominations. 

10. Write a sentence containing an item of an account. 

RULES FOR THE USE OF THE PERIOD. 

1. A period should be placed after every abbreviated 
word; as, A. Lincoln; Aug. 6; 4:30 p. m. 

The period thus used indicates only the abbreviation, and 
does not dispense with other punctuation marks, except at 
the close of a sentence, where the period is not doubled; as, 
Chicago, 111., Sept. 10, 1895; Did he travel incog.?; After 
his name he wrote with a flourish, A. M. 

2. A period should be used before decimals; after 
pounds, shillings, and pence; and after Roman numerals, 
except in paging; as, $10.75; £>!• 6s. 8d.; Chap. VII. p. 16. 

EXERCISE 2. 

Rewrite, correcting errors and inserting capitals and 
periods where required. 

1. Send by Mich. Central 5 sacks O G Java. 

2. Charge to brown and co. We trust in god. 

3. j. g. blaine sec of state — express c. o. d 

4. i will be with you on the first monday in aug 

5. the south is not so populous as the north 

6. o how i suffer with the toothache 

7. miss etta brown grand rapids mich 

8. marshall field cor state and Washington sts. 

9. R w jones dr to 1 bush potatoes 

10. there is a methodist, a baptist and a presbyterian 
church in the village. 



174 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Rewrite, correcting errors: 

1. The roman catholic church 

2. grover Cleveland was president of the united states. 

3. we shall start for new york on thanksgiving day 

4. we use packards commercial arithmetic 

5. the atlantic ocean lies between americaand europe 

6. lake erie is north of the state of ohio. 

7. london is the capital of the empire of great britain. 

8. new york, the empire state, is the most populous in 
the union. 

9. Christopher columbus was a native of genoa 

10. the united states lies mostly in the temperate zone. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write the following words, using capital letters when 
needed: 

Declaration of independence. governor tilden. 

History of the great rebellion. Oliver wendell holmes. 

Webster's reply to hayne. mount Washington, 

pilgrim's progress. english channel, 

lives of the poets. the holy spirit, 

tent on the beach long island sound, 

she stoops to conquer. james russell lowell. 

Hymn on the nativity. new york central r r. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Some words are abbreviated for convenience in writing. 
Observing Rule 1, for the use of the period, abbreviate these 
words by using the first five letters: Thursday, Lieutenant, 
Photograph, Treasurer. 

These, by using first four letters: Connecticut, Captain, 
Florida, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, 
Pennsylvania, professor, president, Tennessee. 

These, by writing first three letters: Alabama, answer, 
Arkansas, California, Colonel, England, Friday, George, Illi- 
nois, secretary, Sunday, Texas, Wednesday, Wisconsin, and 
all the months except May and June. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



175 



These, by writing the first two letters: Company, County, 
credit, example, inches. 

These, by writing first letter: East, North, South, West, 
Ohio, page, shilling. 

These, by writing first and last letter: Doctor, debtor, 
Georgia, Iowa, junior, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Mary- 
land, Master, Mister, Saint, Street, Vermont, Virginia. 

These, by writing the first letter of each word of the com- 
pound with a period after each: Artium baccalaureus (bach- 
elor of arts), Anno Domini (in the year of our Lord), Artium 
Magister (master of arts), Ante Meridiem (before noon), 
before Christ, collect on delivery, District (of) Columbia, 
Member (of) Congress, North America, North Carolina, 
New Hampshire, Post Master, post meridiem (afternoon), 
Post Office. 

The abbreviations in column 1, below, are irregular in 
choice of letters, and those in column 2, in not beginning 
with capital letters. 

These, and the foregoing abbreviations, should be com- 
mitted to memory. 





1. 




2. 


Acct., 


account. 


bu., 


bushel. 


Bbl., 


barrel. 


do., 


ditto (the same). 


Chas., 


Charles. 


doz. 


dozen. 


LL.D., 

Messrs., 
Mme. 


Doctor of laws. 

gentlemen. 

Madam. 


e.g., 
etc., 
ft., 


example gratia. 

(for example.) 

et cetera. 

(and others.) 

foot, feet. 


Mo., 
Mrs., 


Missouri, 
mistress. 


hhd., 
hdkf., 


hogshead, 
handkerchief. 


Mts., 


mountains. 


i. e., 


id est (that is). 


Reed., 


received. 


lb., 


pound (libra). 


Robt., 


Robert. 


oz., 


ounce. 


Supt., 


superintendent. 


P-. 


page. 






PP-. 

qt., 
viz., 


pages, 
quart, 
videlicet (namely), 






yd., 


yard. 



176 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

The first letter of a word is called its initial or initial let- 
ter; as, O., Ohio; G., George; R., Robert. 

The apostrophe (') is used to mark the omission of a 
letter or letters from a word; as, o'clock, ne'er, e'er, can't, 
tho'. 

Both the apostrophe and the period should not be used 
in connection with the same word. 

COMMON ERRORS. 
PLURALS. 

Rule 1. Nouns ending in y, preceded by a vowel, form 
their plurals by adding s; as, money, moneys; but if y is 
preceded by a consonant it is changed, in the plural, to ies; 
as, county, counties. 

Rule 2. Some nouns ending in o, preceded by a con- 
sonant, form their plural in es; as, buffalo, calico, cargo, 
echo, embargo, grotto, hero, innuendo, motto, mosquito, 
mulatto, negro, portico, potato, tornado, volcano. 

The following add s only: canto, domino, duodecimo, 
halo, junto, lasso, memento, octavo, piano, proviso, quarto, 
tatoo, solo, two, tyro, zero. 

Notice that in the following nouns o is preceded by a 
vowel: bamboo, cameo, cuckoo, embryo, folio, trio. 

Rule 3. In writing the plurals of compound words, 
vary the principal word only; as, sons-in-law, courts-mar- 
tial, Englishmen, step-sons. 

A few compounds vary both parts; as, men-children, 
men-servants, women-servants. 

Compounds consisting of a title and a name form their 
plurals by varying either the title or the name; as, the Miss 
Clarks, or the Misses Clark; but when the title Mrs. is used, 
the name alone is varied; as, the Mrs. Clarks. 

A title used with two or more different names is made 
plural; as Drs. Grimes and Smith. 

EXERCISE 5. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. The ladys live in the vallies. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 1 77 

2. The monkies chase the turkies through the lilys. 

3. The negros managed the buffalos and mosquitos. 

4. Bring the octavoes but leave the folioes, 

5. He sang soloes till the echos rang. 

6. The heros used their lassoes. 

7. The nests of the cuckooes were torn by tornados. 

8. Let those mulattos dig the potatos. 

9. His attornies recovered the monies. 

10. Babys look for Santa Claus in the chimnies. 

EXERCISE 6. 

1. Uncle James has two son-in-laws. 

2. Mrs. Brown has three man-servants. 

3. The Misses Clarks saw General Lee and Jackson. 

4. A man may have two father-in-laws. 

5. The knight-templars attended the court-martials. 

6. Babys do not need teeth brushes. 

7. Those Englishmans have German servants. 

8. The Normen in old times were Frenchmans. 

9. General McClellan and Grant were commander-in- 
chiefs. 

10. The Misses Mary, Julia and Anna Scotts are here. 

VERBS. 

Let plural verbs follow plural subjects; as, we were, not 
we was; the boys have, not the boys has; the men are, not 
the men is; etc. 

Remember that done and seen must not be used alone; 
say, I have done the work, not I done the work; I have seen 
him, not I seen him. 

Avoid such expressions as: have came, has sung, was 
drove, has stole, have broke, have knew, is froze, is knowed, 
has went, has rang, has took, has drank, has drove, he drunk 
it, he teached me, etc. 

EXERCISE 7. 
Correct the following errors: 

1. The fireworks was beautiful. 
12 



I78 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

2. The snuffers is broken. 

3. Your scissors is lost. 

4. Is the ashes emptied. 

5. John done that for I seen him. 

6. That horse was drove ten miles last night. 

7. He drunk two pailsful of water. 

8. I knew he had stole it. 

9. She has often sang in public. 

10. He wrote several poems which was not published. 

Avoid the misuse of tense forms. Note carefully the 
following verbs: 

Verb. 

Lie (to recline), 
Lay (to place); 
Sit (to occupy a seat), 
Set (to place), 
Flee (to escape), 
Fly (to take wings), 
Rise (to get up), 
Raise (to elevate), 

Do not use learn (to receive instruction) for teach (to 
give instruction). Do not confuse expect (to look for in 
the future) with intend (to purpose doing). We expect the 
train; we intend to go. 

Remember that shall, in the first person, indicates future 
action only; will, in the first person, indicates determined 
purpose. 

In the second and third persons these meanings are 
reversed; will indicates future action, shall becomes a com- 
mand to be obeyed. 

EXERCISE 8. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. The tide sits in. 

2. Go and lay down. 

3. I remember when the corner stone was lain. 

4. Sit the plates on the table. 

5. I laid there an hour. 



'resent. 


Past. 


Participle. 


lie, 


lay, 


lain. 


lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


set, 


set, 


set. 


flee, 


fled, 


fled. 


fly, 


flew, 


flown. 


rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


raise, 


raised, 


raised. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 1 79 

6. Some valuable land was overflown. 

7. He flew from justice. 

8. Will you set in the chair, or lay on the bed? 

9. I have raised early this morning. 
10. He has laid there an hour. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. Will you learn John his lesson. 

2. Do you expect to build a house? 

3. It is intended that the army will march. 

4. He says he will be glad to see you. 

5. We will never look on his like again. 

6. I hope that I will be well. 

7. I fear we will have rain. 

8. Will we see you again soon? 

9. I think I will be contented. 
10. I believe I will catch cold. 

CASE. 

The subject of a verb, expressed or understood, should 
have the subject form. 

The object of a verb transitive, or of a preposition, should 
have the objective form. 

The possessive of nouns, both singular and plural, is reg- 
ularly formed by adding the apostrophe and s ('s). The 
apostrophe is not used in forming the possessive of pro- 
nouns. 

He is as good as me. Say "I," for the "as" shows that 
a verb is understood. Let you and I go. Say "me," for the 
verb "let" requires an object. Nobody said so but he. Say 
"him" — "but," in the sense of except, is a preposition, and 
requires an object. 

Remember that the verb "to be," throughout its varia- 
tions, is usually followed by the subject form. 

EXERCISE 10. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. Them that study grammar talk no better than me. 



180 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

2. Him and me are of the same age. 

3. A young mens' class has been formed. 

4. I am not so old as her by ten years. 

5. He was angry and me too. 

6. I am opposed to the gentleman speaking again. 

7. He spoke of you studying Latin. 

8. Who will go? me. 

9. No one could have done it as well as him. 
10. Whom did you suppose it was? 

EXERCISE II. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. I took that tall man to be he. 

2. I thought that tall man was him. 

3. I am sure it could not have been them. 

4. Let you and I try it. 

5. It was Virgil, him who wrote the Eneid, 

6. Us boys enjoy the holidays. 

7. The lesson was taught in the girls class room. 

8. He that promises much, do not trust. 

9. Them that do the work should receive the wages. 
10. Did he choose you and I ? 

COMPARISON. 

The comparative degree of adjectives is generally used 
with reference to two things only. 

The superlative degree is generally used with reference 
to more than two things; as, This is the better of the two. 
This is the best of the three. She is older than I. He is the 
oldest of the three. 

Avoid double comparatives and superlatives. Do not say, 
more healthier, but more healthy. Nor, more pleasanter, 
but more pleasant. 

Be careful that your adjective agrees in number with 
your noun; as, this sort; that kind; not, these sort, those 
kind. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. l8l 

EXERCISE 12. 

Correct the errors: 

1. The younger of the three is the prettier. 

2. Which of these two books is best. 

3. Thomas comes oftenest of the two. 

4. He was the most active of all his companions. 

5. The mother seemed the youngest of the two. 

6. Those kind of people will never be satisfied. 

7. A more healthier location cannot be found. 

8. The opinion is becoming more universal. 

9. I measured it with a two feet rule. 

10. Remove this ashes and put away that tongs. 

Remember that two negative words are equivalent to an 
affirmative, and do not use this construction, unless you 
mean to affirm; as, I am not doing nothing, means, I am 
doing something. Say, I am doing nothing, or, I am not 
doing anything. 

Do not use adjectives for adverbs, nor adverbs for adjec- 
tives; as, The river runs swift; say, swiftly. My head feels 
badly; say, bad. The rose smells sweetly; say, sweet. He 
did his work good; say, well. 

Avoid redundant expressions; as, He returned back; he 
ascended up; it sinks down. 

EXERCISE 13. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. He hasn't done nothing. 

2. He hasn't his lesson I don t believe. 

3. She wasn't never thinking of nothing. 

4. I wont never see you no more, no time. 

5. He wouldn't look badly in the chair. 

6. His entertainments were seldom and shabby. 

7. This is a remarkable cold winter. 

8. My cousin looks charmingly. 

9. She sang very sweet. 

10. We can write as good as you. 
Do not use adverbs needlessly. Be sure to place them 



182 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

where there can be no doubt as to what you intend them to 
modify. 

Do not say, This ere book; nor, That are pen. His nose 
was very — not, terribly, nor horribly, nor awfully — red. 

EXERCISE 14. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. I am dreadfully glad to hear that. 

2. She had an awful good time. 

3. I have thought of marrying often. 

4. This 'ere knife is dull, that 'are is sharp. 

5. The cars will not stop at this station only when the 
bell rings. 

6. The prisoner begged that they would kill him again 
and again. 

7. They were nearly dressed alike. 

8. He only ate three meals that day. 

9. He hasn't his lesson, I don't believe. 
10. I don't like too much sugar in my tea. 

Be careful, in using prepositions, to select only those 
fixed upon by good usage, to express the relation you wish. 

Do not omit necessary prepositions, and do not use them 
needlessly. 

EXERCISE 15. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. This book is different to that. 

2. Butter to Smith's for 20 cts. a pound. 

3. He fell from the bridge in the water. 

4. They quarreled among each other. 

5. What is the matter of John? 

6. He took exceptions from the remark. 

7. They divided the apples between the four. 

8. Egypt is the west side of the Red Sea. 

9. He took the poker from out of the fire. 
10. Butter brings 20 cents for a pound. 

EXERCISE 16. 

1. There is no use going there. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 1 83 

2. The boy is like to his father. 

3. The road runs parallel by the river. 

4. The wagon collided against the car. 

5. These goods are inferior than the last. 

6. These prints are different to those. 

7. He was expelled the office. 

8. He stays to school very late. 

9. He threw himself unto the bed. 
10. What is the matter of him. 

Many words are similar in sound, but differ widely in 
meaning. 

Consult your dictionary in regard to the following: bale, 
bail; beech, beach; bridle, bridal; canvas, canvass; council, 
counsel; complement, compliment; canon, cannon; faint, 
feint; hail, hale; heel, heal; lessen, lesson; lightning, light- 
ening; stationary, stationery; teem, team; write, rite, right, 
wright; respectfully, respectively; seed, cede. 

EXERCISE 17. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. He wished me many complements. 

2. They drew their boat upon the beech. 

3. His council was, precede with the bridle ceremony. 

4. Canvas the town thoroughly. 

5. Her pretence to feint was but a faint. 

6. He was busy lightning his load. 

7. Rite to Mr. Write to bring his teem. 

8. I shall proceed to buy cede for the land. 

9. That engine is stationery. 
10. I am selling stationary. 

Collective nouns conveying the idea of unity take singu- 
lar verbs; as, The jury finds the prisoner guilty. 

When the idea of plurality is prominent, collective nouns 
take plural verbs; as, The public are requested to be present. 

EXERCISE 18. 

Correct the following errors: 
1. Is these your scissors. 



184 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

2. Please pass them molasses. 

3. These kind of people are hard to please. 

4. The jury find the prisoner guilty. 

5. Congress have adjourned. 

6. Each of the girls have their fan. 

7. Every pupil must study their books. 

8. Neither of the four were there. 

9. England expects every man to do their duty. 
10. The public is requested to be present. 

EXERCISE 19. 

1. These two boys are both brothers. 

2. Never before had I known how short life was. 

3. Every one must judge for themselves. 

4. My brothers' wifes' sisters' husband is rich. 

5. The cat when it comes into the light contracts her 
eyes. 

6. I like this book better than any book I have seen. 

7. Victuals are always singular. 

8. Neither of the boys does their duty. 

9. There comes the boys. 

10. Now let each one decide for themselves. 

All errors in the use of language may be classed under 
four heads: Too many words; too few words; improper 
words or expressions; improper arrangements of words. 

Thus far, we have discussed, in the main, the first three of 
these classes; we will now give attention to the fourth 
class. 

But, before proceeding further, let us notice briefly some 
rules for the use of the comma. 

The uses of the comma may nearly all be classified under 
two heads. First, the comma is used to set out by itself 
any part of a sentence which is, in any way, detached in 
meaning from the rest; second, the comma is used to mark 
an ellipsis of some kind. Briefly, the two principal uses of 
the comma are, to set out what is thrown into a sentence, 
and to mark the omission of what has been left out. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 185 

EXAMPLES: 

A man of great wealth may, for want of education and 
refinement, be a mere cipher in society. 

In this example the words, " for want of education and 
refinement," are thrown into the sentence between the parts 
of the verb, and are very properly set out by commas. 

Chicago, Cook Co., 111., Sept. 7, 1895. 

In he above there is an ellipsis of " in " after " Chicago," 
also after "Co."; of "on" after " 111.," and of " in " after 
" 7." After " Sept." there is no omission, hence no comma. 

To these rules may be added the following: 

1. The comma must be used to separate vocative 
expressions from the rest of the sentence. 

Thus: I remain, Sir, your obedient servant. 

2. Use a comma to separate words in the same construc- 
tion not separated by conjunctions; as, A still, small voice; 
I read, write, and cipher. 

a. Note, if one conjunction is omitted in a series of 
three or more words, in like construction, separate all of 
them by commas; as, Mary, Helen, and Julia have come. If 
you omit the second comma in the last example, you maybe 
understood as telling Mary of the arrival of Helen and 
Julia; your inserting it makes your meaning clear, that three 
girls have arrived. 

b. Though the conjunctions be not omitted, if one of a 
series of words has modifiers which the others have not, 
separate the series by commas; as, He is entitled to the 
annual crops, and wood for fuel. 

c. Separate by commas, pairs of words joined by con- 
junction. 

3. An inverted clause, standing at the beginning of a 
sentence, should be separated from the rest of a sentence by 
commas; as, Awkward in person, he was ill adapted to win 
respect. 

4. A short quotation, or a sentence resembling a quota- 
tion, should be set off by a comma preceding; as, Some one 
justly remarks, It is a great loss to lose an affliction. 



l86 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

5. Use the comma to prevent ambiguity, and to give 
prominence to emphatic and contrasted parts. 

Finally, remember that the comma, like other marks of 
punctuation, is used only to make your meaning plain; if it 
does not do this, it is not needed. 

The proper arrangement of words has much to do with 
the use of the comma. You should bear in mind, that he 
punctuates best who needs to punctuate least. In cases of 
doubt, it is well to heed Punch's advice to those contem- 
plating marriage: " Don't." 

EXAMPLES OF ERRORS. 

The toast as given: "Woman, without her, man would 
be a savage." The toast as read: "Woman without her 
man, would be a savage." 

A barber's sign read as follows: " What do you think 
I'll shave you for nothing and give you a drink." Strangers 
mentally punctuated as follows: " What do you think ! I'll 
shave you for nothing and give you a drink." After being 
attended to, they were informed that it should be punctu- 
ated thus: " What ! Do you think I'll shave you for noth- 
ing and give you a drink? " 

A notice as sent to the pulpit: " John Smith, being about 
to go to sea, his wife requests the prayers of the church for 
his safety." The notice as read: " John Smith being about 
to go to see his wife, requests the prayers of the church 
for his safety." 

EXERCISE 20. 

Rearrange and punctuate the following: 

1. Wanted: — A smart young girl to take up and deliver 
clothes with a small cart, aged between 12 and 15 years. 

2. He is considered generally insane. 

3. Wanted:— A man to fit boots of a good moral char- 
acter. 

4. I could see that the floor had been swept with half 
an eye. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 1 87 

5. He said I could not make mince pies like his 
mother. 

6. The barber was shot while shaving his customer 
with a brass barreled pistol. 

7. He went to town driving a flock of sheep on horse- 
back. 

8. A man does not lose his mother now in the papers. 

9. In one evening, I counted twenty-seven meteors sit- 
ting on my back fence. 

10. Is there a gentleman in this club with one eye 
named Walker? "I don't know," was the reply. "What 
is the name of his other eye?" 

EXERCISE 21 . 

Rearrange and punctuate the following: 

1. We have two school rooms large enough to accom- 
modate three hundred boys, one above another. 

2. There are some defects which must be acknowledged 
in the dictionary. 

3. Wanted: — A saddle horse for a lady weighing 950 
pounds. 

4. The following lines were written by a young man 
who has long slept in his grave for his own amusement. 

5. Wanted: — A room for a single gentleman twelve feet 
long and six feet wide. 

6. Lost: — A cow belonging to an old woman with brass 
knobs on her horns. 

7. The beaux of that day practiced the abominable art 
of painting their faces as well as the women. 

8. I cannot think of leaving you without distress. 

9. Lost: — A gray mare with a wart on the side of her 
head eight miles north of Chicago. 

10. A child was run over by a heavy wagon wearing 
bronze boots and a pink dress that never spoke afterward. 

AMBIGUITY. 

A sentence is ambiguous when it is capable of two or 
moie distinct meanings. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



"We should take care," says Quintilian, " not that the 
hearer may understand, but that he must understand." 

One very common source of ambiguity is what is termed 
" The Squinting Construction." By this is meant a word or 
an expression thrust into the middle of a sentence in such 
a manner that it looks both ways; that is, it can be con- 
nected either with what precedes or what follows; as, '"Tell 
him, if he is in the parlor, that I do not wish to see him." 
Query, Would you wish to see him if he were in the 
kitchen? 

EXERCISE 22. 

Correct the errors in arrangement: 

1. This monument was erected to the memory of John 
Smith who was accidentally shot, as a mark of affection by 
his brother. 

2. Say to him, if he is in the wrong, he should retrace 
his steps. 

3. This part of our good fame, in the olden time was 
forfeited by the authorities. 

4. They arose, to a degree, comforted and tranquil. 

5. Though some of the European rulers are females, 
when spoken of altogether, they may be correctly classified 
as kings. 

6. He left the room, very slowly, repeating his deter- 
mination not to obey. 

7. They seized upon him suddenly, making his way 
through the door. 

8. I think you will find my Latin exercises, at least, cor- 
rect. 

9. Mr. Fays is busy picking shot from his face that was 
intended for a rabbit. He got into range of his friend's gun. 

10. After partaking of a hearty breakfast, the balloon 
was brought into town, amid the cheers of the inhabitants. 

EXERCISE 23. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. The figs were in small wooden boxes, which we ate. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 189 

2. He needs no spectacles, that cannot see. 

3. Mary asked her mother if she might go with her, as 
she was sure she was going to buy something for her. 

4. Mr. Jones has just received a letter from Mr. Smith, 
saying that he is expected to deliver the next annual 
address. 

5. John found the key, locked the door, and went off 
putting it into his pocket. 

6. The farmer went to his neighbor and told him that 
his cattle were in his fields. 

7. When the travelers complained of his dogs, he said 
they were ill-mannered curs. 

8. Found: — A white-handled knife by a child that has a 
broken back. 

9. Did you take that book to the library which I loaned 
you? 

10. The English loathe frogs but the French love frogs 
and hate the English, and cut off their hind legs which they 
consider a great delicacy. 

EXERCISE 24. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. I with my family reside in the parish of Stockton, 
which consists of my wife and daughters. 

2. The most interesting news from Italy is that of the 
trial of the thieves who robbed the bank at Genoa, on May 
1 1862 in open daylight, which commenced at Genoa on 
the 5th. 

3. To this group belongs the monster first made known 
by Dr. Mantelle, whose body was 28 to 30 feet long. 

4. We have received a bunch of grapes from our friend 
Williams for which he will please receive our compliments, 
some of which are nearly three inches in diameter. 

5. This hotel will be kept by the widow of the former 
landlord Mr. Brown, who died last summer, on a new and 
improved plan. 

6. The rear seats have all the year been occupied by 
children, that have no backs. 



190 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



7. They lay down to rest behind their horses picketed 
to the wall, which had carried them from the Volga to the 
Don. 

8. He said he would not hear me, which I confess I had 
expected. 

9. At four o'clock this morning a lot of wood piled in a 
shed at No. 144, East Ave., fell with a loud noise, which 
broke down the gates and alarmed the neighbors. 

10. A purse was picked up by a boy, made of leather. 

Avoid uniting, in compound sentences, matters that have 
no natural connection in thought. A multiplicity of ands 
is the distinguishing mark of a schoolboy's composition. 

EXERCISE 25. 

Correct the following errors: 

1. I take my pen in hand to inform you that we are all 
well but Jane, who has the ague, and I hope you are enjoy- 
ing the same blessing. 

2. The procession was very fine and nearly two miles 
long; as was also the sermon by Dr. Perry, the chaplain. 

3. He expired, having enjoyed by the benefit of this 
regimen a long and healthy life and a gentle and easy 
death. 

4. The dog had bitten his wife and on the following 
Monday it died. 

5. Wanted: — By an Apothecary an assistant to take an 
interest in a small first-class trade and in a quiet family. 

6. Any person driving over this bridge faster than a 
walk shall, if a white person, be fined 5 dollars, and if a 
negro, receive twenty-five lashes and half the penalty shall 
go to the informer. 

7. Mrs. A's compliments to Mrs. B. and begs to state 
that C. lived with her a year and a half and found her 
strictly honest, steady, and respectable. 

8. Gentlemen's materials made up and waited on at 
their own homes. 

9. Five dollars reward will be paid for the conviction 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



IQI 



of anyone sticking bills upon this church, or any other 
nuisance. 

10. She was a woman of taste and wearing a green vel- 
vet dress. 

MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES. 

SYNONYMS. 

An ungraceful repetition of the same word several times 
in a sentence is a great blemish in composition. It not only 
destroys the beauty of the sentence, but it also denotes 
poverty of language in the writer. 

To obviate this difficulty, consult the standard diction- 
aries, as also such works as Crabb's "Synonyms," Graham's 
"English Synonyms," and Roget's "Thesaurus of Words 
and Phrases." 

EXERCISE 1. 

For each of the following words write another word 
meaning nearly the same: 

Abandon. Accurate. Baffle. 

Abuse. Adjacent. Bargain. 

Abhor. Affable. Bestow. 

Abridge. Aggregate. Bountiful. 

Accidental. Ambiguous. Business. 

Accomplish. Arduous. Buxom. 



EXERCISE 2. 

For each of the following, write another word meaning 
nearly the same: 

Cajole. Commercial. Deference. 

Calculate. Competent. Delicious. 

Capacity. Compunction. Deportment. 

Casualty. Concise. Determine. 

Character. Conjecture. Dilemma. 

Circumspect. Contingent. Diligence. 



192 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write sentences containing the following words correctly 



used: 






Adherents. 


Complement. 


Depositary. 


Adherence. 


Compliment. 


Depository, 


Berry. 


Council. 


Elicit. 


Bury. 


Counsel. 


Illicit. 



EXERCISE 4. 

Write sentences containing the following words correctly 
used: 

Feign. Hoard. Kernel. 

Fain. Horde. Colonel. . 

Genius. Incite. Lesser. 

Genus. Insight. Lessor. 

EXERCISE 5. 

Write sentences containing the following words correctly 
used: 

Sealing. Team. Witch. 

Ceiling. Teem. Which. 

Seller. Veracity. Lightning. 

Cellar. Voracity. Lightening. 

EXERCISE 6. 

Write sentences containing the following words correctly 
used: 

Marshal. Ordinance. Quire. 

Martial. Ordnance. Choir. 

Neither. Principal. Residence. 

Nether. Principle. Residents. 

EXERCISE 7. 

Copy the following words, correcting errors in spelling, 
and placing capitals where they are needed: 

Abolish, adelade, acsidental, anser, breef, bango, busines, 
conseel, counterfit, defeet, deleware, embarras, esteam, 
fasinate, frusterate, gawdy, galilea, lusid, lundon, nupshals, 
opshun, Milwaky, practise, proseed, recollection. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. I93 

EXERCISE 8. 

Copy the following words, correcting errors in spelling, 
and placing capitals where they are needed: 

Reseed, resiprocal, racine, repeel, salery, saganaw, seduse, 
srewd, sence, tallow, respectfully, traduse, theator, unsertain, 
unwerid, vicinity, vew, zeffer, zelot, dimonds, philadelfia, 
cinnimon, febuary, desember, rubarb. 

TELEGRAPHIC MESSAGES. 

The object to be attained, in messages of this class, is to 
express in the fewest possible words our exact meaning 
clearly and unmistakably. 

The expense of telegraphic correspondence is great 
enough to make its reduction an object of interest to all. 

EXERCISE 9. 

Write a telegram in not to exceed ten words, stating that 
you are well, that you have successfully transacted your 
business, and that you will be at home soon. 

Telegraph, in not to exceed ten words, for a state room 
on steamer New York, leaving New York Tuesday evening 
from Pier 40, North River. 

Write a telegraph dispatch not exceeding ten words and 
containing four distinct statements. 

EXERCISE 10. 

You are in Omaha. Telegraph to your partner in Chicago 
that you have shipped ten thousand bushels No. 2 Spring 
wheat via Chicago & Northwestern R. R. Do not exceed 
ten words. 

Send a dispatch to your friend answering the following 
inquiries: How are wheat and barley? Is market steady? 
When will you come home? 

Send a dispatch to your father in New York, stating that 
your mother is very sick and not expected to live. Ask 
him to return immediately. 



194 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

EXERCISE ii. 

One of your customers has failed to pay his grocery bill 
promptly. Make out his bill, and write a few lines at the 
foot requesting him to pay it soon. 

You are shortly to move into a new store. Write a cir- 
cular to your customers notifying them of the change. 

You wish to employ a clerk skilled in the grocery busi- 
ness. Prepare an advertisement for the paper stating the 
fact. 

You are in want of a situation as clerk in the grocery 
business. Prepare an advertisement for the paper stating 
your wishes and giving your address. 

Write an order on a shoe store, in favor of your clerk, for 
goods to be charged to your account. Specify the amount. 

Write a receipt for money paid you on account. 

Write a receipt for money paid you in full of an account. 

Write a receipt for money paid you by one person to ap- 
ply on another's account. 

Write a receipt for three months' rent paid you for your 
house, No. 283 Huron St. State the time covered by the 
payment. 

You have lost a valuable horse. Prepare a notice for the 
press stating your loss, describing the horse, and offering 
a reward for his recovery. 

You have found a pocket book containing a sum of 
money. Write a notice of this to be published in the city 
papers. 

Your dog has strayed from home. Write a notice de- 
scribing him, and offering a reward for his recovery. 

You have lost a sample case containing samples of 
woolen goods. Advertise for its return, offering suitable 
reward. 

You are the secretary of the public school board. By 
order of the president, write a notice calling the members 
together for a special meeting. 

The merchants of your town have decided to close their 
places of business at 7 o'clock each week day evening, ex- 
cept Saturday evenings, when they will remain open till ten. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. I95 

Write a notice of this agreement for the information of 
the public. 

You are a member of some local society. Give notice of 
a resolution that you intend to offer at next meeting. Write 
the resolution. 

You have added a boot and shoe department to your 
general business. Write a circular announcing this fact. 

Write five short reading notices of your goods, in shape 
to appear in the " local column " of your village paper. 

Your spring goods have just arrived. Prepare an adver- 
tisement announcing this fact. 

There has been a fire in your store, and a part of your 
goods have been slightly damaged. Announce their sale at 
half price. 

You have opened an insurance and loan office in a 
country town. Write a suitable business card. 

You are a real estate agent having houses for sale and to 
rent. Write an advertisement describing three houses for 
sale, stating prices and terms of payment. 

Write an advertisement of three houses to rent. Describe 
their advantages, and state monthly rent required. 

You have a farm for sale. Write an advertisement de- 
scribing its location, its improvements and advantages, and 
stating terms of sale. 

Abridge the following sentences, that is, express their 
meaning in a briefer, better manner; as, The taxes which are 
not yet paid, is the same as, the unpaid taxes. The trees which 
bear no fruit. They who advocate this principle. Since the 
winter has passed away. I know not how it should be done. 
If you are industrious you will prosper. It is impossible for 
me to go. It would be better for you to stay. We requested 
him that he should go himself. I wish that you would write 
to me. The lines which were written by Hood. 

EUPHEMISM. 

It is sometimes politic to express the truth in mild words. 
In doing this, we use what is known in rhetoric as euphe- 
mism; as, He was drunk. We can soften this by saying, He 



ig6 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

was in a state of intoxication; or, He was a victim to alco- 
hol. 

In like manner soften the following expressions: 

1. She is a dirty housekeeper. 

2. He is a coward and a glutton. 

3. I hate to eat slop for soup. 

4. He was kicked out of office. 

5. He lies, cheats, and steals. 

6. He is a red-nosed toper. 

7. Money makes the mare go. 

8. He is a soft-headed dude. 

9. He is too lazy to breathe. 
10. He is an idiot. 

Condense the following sentences by omitting superflu- 
ous words: 

1. Have you got money enough? 

2. In what state is Trenton in? 

3. They ascended up the hill. 

4. Add these numbers together. 

5. They both resemble each other very much. 

6. He relieved the poor widow woman. 

7. They descended down into the mine. 

8. He was compelled to return back against his will. 

9. He does not like too much sugar in his tea. 
10. Give me a yard off this piece. 

Improve the following paragraphs by combining short 
sentences: 

We started early. The rain came on. We got drenched. 
We reached a cottage. We saw four girls. They were 
Swiss peasants. They treated us kindly. They sang for us. 
Their voices were beautiful. The tune was beautiful. It 
was wild, original and sweet. We remained to dinner. The 
rain did not cease till late in the day. We were baffled. We 
were not discouraged. We resolved to climb the mountain. 
We resolved to do it on the following day. 

Combine sentences and rearrange the following: 

A great stir was made at the door. Messengers came 
hurrying to report something. This was that the Normans 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. IQ7 

had landed in England. The messengers were covered with 
mire. This was because they had ridden fast and far over 
broken ground. King Harold was sitting at York at a feast. 
The king was in the midst of all his company. 

Substitute proper words for those incorrectly used in the 
following sentences: 

1. The meadows are redolent with light. 

2. We were much effected by her tears. 

3. The ship lays in the harbor and he sets on deck. 

4. I love ice water better than coffee. 

5. I expect you had an awful good time. 

6. She is mischievous; reprove her sharp. 

7. Would we see anything if we would go? 

8. I believe he will be elected by a unanimous majority. 

9. You will see to morrow what shall surprise you. 
10. I hear he enjoys bad health. 

Correct the following grammatical errors: 

1. I have done learned my lesson. 

2. I seen him when he done it. 

3. I do not think such persons as him competent. 

4. Who were you talking with? 

5. There is no doubt of its being him. 

6. Was it me or him that you called? 

7. I shall be happy always to see my friends. 

8. You did the work as good as I could expect. 

9. We didn't find nobody at home. 

10. This is a different dinner to what we have eaten. 
Correct the following sentences, faulty in arrangement: 

1. Mr. Crowdin will speak to night on the Paris expo- 
sition in Cooper Institute. 

2. The edition of this work is very scarce, on large 
paper. 

3. He should not marry a woman in high-life, who has 
no money. 

4. I heard this from the driver, who heard it from the 
postman who was at the gate. 

5. Here I saw two men digging a well with straw hats. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



6. The clerk told his employer that whatever he did he 
could not please him. 

7. Claudius was canonized amongthe gods, who scarcely 
deserved the name of man. 

8. The lady was sewing with a Roman nose. 

9. The rising tomb a lofty column bore. 

10. This is not a principle that we can act on and ad- 
here to. 

Six little verbs are often misused — lie, lay, sit, set, rise, 
raise. Fill the blanks in the following sentences with the 
proper words: 

1. Tom was s by the window and Frank was 1 

on a board that he had 1 on a box. 

2. You may s the lamp on the table and s down 

while I am 1 these plaits. 

3. I had often s by the window watching the fog 

r from the river which 1 far below the town. 

4. After she had s for some minutes as if in reverie, 

she gently r her hand, s the cup aside, and then 

1 down to rest. 

5. The kite r rapidly as the wind r ; but the 

string broke, and we found it 1 in the field which 1 

just across the creek. 

6. We were s on the porch when we saw him r 

his hand to strike a blow. 

7. He r from the bed, but 1 down again, when 

his mother s down. 

8. I will s here, and watch while you 1 down 

for a nap. 

9. When I had 1 my burden down, and had s 

my hat on the table, my friend recognized me, and r to 

greet me. 

10. Don't 1 awake to worry about the matter, but 

1 your plans to raise the money before winter. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 199 



BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



LETTERS. 



A letter is a written communication from one person to 
another. It is intended to take the place of conversation, 
and this purpose determines its form, length, style and gen- 
eral tone. Being a kind of personal address, it is, of neces- 
sity, less formal and more direct than many other forms of 
written composition. 

Letters may be classified; as, 1. Letters of business; 
2. of friendship and courtesy; and, 3. to newspapers. 

With the first class this treatise is chiefly concerned. 

It has been well said, that the form of a business letter 
is best when it most clearly and quickly answers three ques- 
tions: 1. Where is this letter from? 2. Who is it from? 3. 
What does he want? 

Letters of business are of great importance on account 
of the interests sometimes involved in them. They should 
be clear, brief, direct, and gentlemanly. Everything not 
relevant to the business on hand should be excluded. 

They should contain such reference to former corre- 
spondence that the business may not become confused 
through personal failure of memory. Business men usually 
file their letters, copies of those sent, as well as those re- 
ceived; so that in a reply the date of the letter answered 
often aids the person addressed in recalling what has been 
said. 

The parts of a letter are: 1. The heading; 2. The 
address; 3. The salutation; 4. The body of the letter; 
5. The complimentary close; 6. The signature. 



200 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

THE HEADING. 

The heading should show where and when the letter was 
written, including the name of the post office where it is 
mailed, and, if it be from a small place, the name of the 
County and State should be given also. 

If an answer is to be sent to the place from which the 
letter is written, the heading should give in full the address 
of the writer. The name of the place should be followed 
by the date, which includes the name of the month, the day 
of the month, and the year. 

All letters, notes and cards should be dated. 

On ruled paper the heading should begin on the first line 
a little to the left of the middle, and it may occupy one, 
two or three lines (never more than three), according to 
circumstances. If the paper is unruled, the position should 
be the same. 

If the heading is short, it may be written on one line, 
and it may be laid down as a rule that the heading should 
occupy as few lines as possible consistent with neatness and 
legibility. 

If the heading occupies two lines, the second should 
begin about an inch farther to the right than the first. If it 
occupies three lines, the third should begin farther to the 
right than the second. 

Notice carefully the arrangement and punctuation of the 
following models: 

1. 

Chicago, April 15, 1895. 

2. 

Woodstock, McHenry Co.,Ill., 
April 15, 1895. 



Mt. Holyoke Seminary, 
South Hadley, Mass., 

April 15, 1895. 

4. 

225 Dearborn Ave., Chicago, 
April 15, 1895. 



EXERCISE i. 

Write the following headings, arranging and punctuating 
them as they should be in a letter: 
1. Ind. Elkhart 1895 April 15. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 201 

2. 1895 State St 97 Chicago April 15. 

3. St. Charles Hotel, April New Orleans La. 27. 1895. 

4. Box 286, 111. April 15 Maywood 1895. 

5. Farmington Me. State Normal School 1895 April 15. 

6. Boston Milk St. 25 April 15 1895. 

7. April 25 Dearborn Ave. Chicago 1895 2 57- 

8. State St. 108 April St Louis Mo. 18 1895. 

9. Albany April 15 N. Y. Box 328 1895. 
10. April 2 1895 Pa - Chester Co. Athenia. 

THE ADDRESS. 

The address, which in a business letter should never be 
omitted, is the same as the superscription, or what is put on 
the envelope. 

To distinguish them, the one may be called the inside 
address, the other the outside address. 

The address should not be omitted, for the reason that 
the envelope is liable to be torn and lost, and the letter itself 
should be self-explaining. 

The address in its fullest form should consist of the name 
and title of the person written to, and his residence or place 
of business. 

The residence must comprise the name of the post office 
where the person addressed receives his mail, the name of 
the county, if the post office is not in a city, and the name of 
the state. If the person written to is in a city, the number 
of the house, the street, the city, and the state should be 
given; but if the city is a large one, the name of the state is 
not so essential. 

The address may be placed at the beginning or at the 
close of the letter. In business letters, the better place is at 
the beginning; in social letters, at the close. 

THE SALUTATION. 

The salutation is the greeting with which it is usual to 
begin a letter; as, Sir, Dear Sir, Madam, Dear Madam, Miss, 
Dear Miss, etc. The words in the salutation should not be 
abbreviated. 



202 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

MODELS OF ADDRESSES AND SALUTATIONS. 
FIRST BUSINESS FORM. 

1. 

Henry Kilbourn, 

Big Rapids, Mich. 
Dear Sir: Your favor of the 15th, etc. 

SECOND BUSINESS FORM. 

2. 

Messrs. Franklin & Hill, 

53 Market St., Philadelphia. 
Gentlemen: Please send by return, etc. 

BUSINESS FORM (MARRIED LADY). 

3. 

Mrs. T. E. Houseman, 

27 State St., Chicago. 
Dear Madam: In reply to, etc. 

4. BUSINESS FORM (UNMARRIED LADY). 

Miss Fannie A. Bryant, 

2048 Prairie Avenue, Chicago. 
We acknowledge with pleasure the receipt of your man- 
uscript, etc. 

5. SOCIAL FORM (FORMAL). 

Mrs. Harriet B. Stowe, 

Dear Madam: 
Accept my sincere thanks for the beautiful book, etc. 

6. SOCIAL FORM (FAMILIAR). 

My Dear Cousin: 

Since I last wrote you, etc. 

7. OFFICIAL FORM. 

Major-General M. C. Meigs, 

Quartermaster-General, 

Washington, D. C. 
General: I have the honor to transmit, etc. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 203 

The address should begin at the marginal line, that is, 
from one-fourth of an inch to an inch from the left edge of 
the sheet, and on the first or second line below the date. It 
may occupy one line, two lines, or three lines, and should 
be arranged as tastefully as may be, taking into considera- 
tion the length of the words and the size of the paper. The 
first line should contain the name and title alone (see pre- 
ceding models). 

EXERCISE 2. 

Copy the foregoing models, noticing carefully the 
arrangement and punctuation. 

EXERCISE 3. 

Write in proper form the following headings, addresses, 
and salutations, rearranging, punctuating, and using capitals 
when necessary: 

1. dear friend Austin 111 April 15 1895 I regret to inform 
you etc. 

2. St. Louis My dear Friend Mo. April 15 1895 m reply 
to your kind offer I have to say etc. 

3. Powers Hotel Rochester Mr John smith N Y april 15 
1895 My dear sir. Please inform me etc. 

4. 805 New York Broadway dear miss jackson april 30 
1895 Do tell me if in your power etc. 

5. Cambridge Mass. April 10 1895 Mr. James F Ham- 
mond 25 elm St Dear Sir: In reply; 

6. State Normal School Syracuse N. Y. My dear uncle 
Many thanks for your etc. 

7. April 15 1895 Ypsilanti Mich. Mr Jas Bodle Chicago 
Madison St 805. My dear Sir; 

8. Wabash ave. 2044 Chicago J S Ogilvie 57 Rose St. 
New York Publisher. My dear Sir: 

9. The Century Co. 33 E 17th St New York Gentlemen 
since November, Chicago April 20 1895 

10. Dear father. Austin 111. April 15 1895. 



204 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

SKELETON LETTER. 

The Heading. 

The address, 

Address. 
Salutation: 

Body of letter 



Paragraph 



I Paragraph 

Complimentary close. 

Signature. 

The body of the letter may begin one line below the sal- 
utation, and just where the salutation closes, or if the ad- 
dress is long, and it is desirable to economize space, it may 
begin on the same line with the salutation separated from it 
by a comma and a dash. 

The author's preference is to begin both the address and 
the salutation on the margin line, which is supposed to be 
from one-fourth to three-fourths of an inch from the left 
edge of the paper, and to begin the body of the letter on 
the paragraph line, which is supposed to be located from an 
inch to an inch and a half from the same edge. 

A new paragraph should be made whenever one begins 
to write about a new subject. 

In acknowledging the receipt of a business letter remem- 
ber to give the date of it. 

The complimentary close follows the body of the letter, 
and immediately precedes the signature. 

These closing words should not be more familiar than 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



the salutation, and, like the words of the salutation, they 
depend much on the relations existing between the parties. 

In business letters, the words usually employed are: 
Yours respectfully, Very respectfully yours; or the same 
varied by inversion; as, Respectfully yours, Yours very 
respectfully, etc. 

In familiar letters that form of words used is generally 
that which springs from the feelings of the moment, and it 
may safely be left to the good taste and good common sense 
of the writer. 

The first word only of the complimentary close should 
begin with a capital. 

The complimentary close is followed by the signature 
ending near the right edge of the sheet. 

A few words of caution may not be amiss at this point. 

1. Every letter should be signed. This direction seems 
superfluous, and yet it is not so; for many a letter is care- 
lessly sent without signature, as the records of the Dead 
Letter Office show. 

2. If the letter contains anything of importance, the 
name should be written in full. 

A letter that, by reason of the death or absence of the 
person addressed, fails to reach its destination, is sent to the 
Dead Letter Office. There it is opened, and if it contains 
the name and address of the writer, it is returned to him. 
Many thousands of dollars are thus returned to the senders 
each year, and many thousands are retained by the Post 
Office Department because the writers neglected to sign 
their names in full, or did not give their Post Office address. 
If letters contain nothing but love sick twaddle or idle gos- 
sip, you may sign them " Hattie" or "Tom;" but if they are 
worth anything, the name and address of the writer should 
be given in full. 

3. The writer's name should be plainly written. A per- 
son's signature may be plain enough to himself, and still be 
worse than a Chinese puzzle to the receiver of his letter. 

4. If the writer is a lady, she should, in writing to a 



206 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

stranger, so sign her name as to indicate not only her sex, 
but also whether she is married or single. 

If a letter, for instance, written by Miss Julia E. Smith, 
is signed J. E. Smith, how is a stranger to know whether he 
is to write to Mr., Mrs., or Miss Smith? This trouble would 
be avoided by the lady's writing " Miss" before her name. 

If the lady is married, she may write Mrs. before her 
husband's name; thus, Mrs. Edward Smith; if she is awidow, 
she should write her name thus: Mrs. Julia Smith. 

The address, when it forms part of the conclusion, is 
written on the next line below the signature, near the left 
hand edge of the sheet, and its parts are arranged in the 
same manner as when written at the top of the letter. 

If the writer's post office address is not fully given at 
the top of the letter, it may be given at the bottom below 
the signature; thus, 

Yours respectfully, 

G. E. Scott, 
Hiram, Portage Co., Ohio. 

MODELS OF CONCLUSIONS. 

(The dotted line stands for the last line of the letter.) 

1 Respectfully yours, 

John R. Emerson. 



Yours very respectfully, 

Mary Jane Holmes. 



Very truly, 

Samuel Willey. 



4 Very truly yours, 

O. Reynolds. 

5 Your sincere friend, 

Harold McCormick. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 20,"] 



I have the honor to be, sir, 

Your obedient servant, 

Leslie R. Graham. 

Your loving daughter, 

Evelyn Wilson. 



Rev. John Wilson, 

Utica, N. Y. 



8 Very truly yours, 

Carrie Hawthorne. 
The Ontario, Chicago, 
April 15, 1895. 

EXERCISE 4. 

Write the following conclusions, punctuating and capital- 
izing as in the foregoing models: 

1. Very respectfully yours, H. Graham. 

2. I am Sir very truly your obedient humble servant to 
command B. H. Wade. 

3. Your faithful servants J. Harrison & Co. 

4. I am gentlemen Yours respectfully H. G. Tilton. 

5. We are respectfully yours Tilden and Adams. 

6. Your ever faithful husband Louis Smith. 

7. Eternally yours Faith Stone Belvoir Flats Suite 12 
April 15 1895. 

8. Your loving friend Mary Bishop (to) Mrs. Carrie E. 
Smith Grand Ledge Mich. 

9. Always yours sincerely Flora Spear. 

10. Believe me ever your friend Jas. D. Hart. 

EXERCISE 5. 

Write, in accordance with the preceding directions, the 
following letters: 

1. 

Heading — Richmond Va. April 15. 1895. 



208 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

Address — Messrs Tilton and Adams No. 12 Bowery New 
York. 

Salutation — Gentlemen. 

Body of Letter — I have recently leased a store in this 
place, which I am at present fitting up and stocking with a 
fine selection of Fancy Groceries, Wines, and Liquors. Please 
oblige me with your price list and best terms. 

Conclusion — I am respectfully yours. 

Signature — Richard Knowles. 

2. 

Heading — State Normal School, Albany N. Y. April 
15, 1895. 

Address — James R. Elliott and Co. Boston. 

Salutation — Dear Sirs: 

Body — Enclosed find Four Dollars $4 for which please 
send me the Literary Monthly for one year, beginning with 
September No. 

Conclusion — Yours very respectfully. 

Signature — Your own name. 

FOLDING. 

A letter sheet should be folded from the bottom forward, 
bringing the lower edge near the top; so as to make the half 
length a little shorter than the envelope. This done, press 
down the fold. Next fold twice the other way, beginning at 
the right edge, and folding toward the left. Measure these 
folds also, so as to fit the envelope. 

A note sheet should be folded twice. Take the letter as 
it lies before you, with the first page uppermost; turn up the 
bottom about one-third of the length of the sheet; bring the 
top down over this, taking care that the sides are even, and 
then press the parts together. Take the envelope with its 
back up, and insert the letter, putting in first the edge last 
folded down. 

Care should be taken to secure envelopes to suit your 
paper. If you want to make a good letter look slovenly, 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 20O, 

endeavor by folding down a half inch at each end to make 
it fit an envelope an inch too short. 

THE SUPERSCRIPTION. 
The superscription is what is written on the outside of 
the envelope. It is the same as the inside address, consist- 
ing of the name, the title, and the full directions of the per- 
son addressed. If the person addressed has any title or 
official designation, it should be used on the envelope, 
because politeness requires it, and because the title will aid 
in the identification of the person to whom the letter 
belongs. 

The title following the name should be separated from it 
by a comma, and every line should end with a comma, 
except the last, which should close with a period. 

The superscription should begin just below the middle of 
the envelope, and near the left edge. It should occupy 
three or four lines. These lines should slope to the right, as 
in the heading and in the address. The spaces between the 
lines should be the same, and the last line should end near 
the lower right-hand corner. 

The writing on the envelope should be in straight lines, 
parallel with the upper and lower edges of the envelope. 

Do not rule the envelope. If you cannot write straight 
without lines, draw very faint lines with a soft lead pencil, 
taking care to erase them after the envelope is addressed, or 
slip a heavily ruled piece of paper or card board into the 
envelope, so that the lines will show through. 

If the person addressed lives in the country, the proper 
order is: 

Name and title, 

Post Office, 

County, 

State. 
If the person lives in the city, the order is: 
Name and title, 

Street No., 

City, 
State. 



2 ID 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



Sometimes it is necessary to address one person in care 
of another. When this is done, the words " Care of, etc." 
form the second line; thus: 

Mrs. Carrie B. Cole, 

Care of H. B. Prentice, 

Allegan, 

Mich. 



MODELS OF SUPERSCRIPTIONS. 



Bryant & Stratton, 
315 Wabash Ave., 
Chicago. 
Business College. 



Miss Sadie J. Barrett, 

Marquette Bldg., 
Room 270. City. 



His Excellency, 
Governor Joseph Fifer, 

Springfield, 



111. 



Miss 


Fannie 


A. Bryant, 




1276 Prairie Ave., 






Chicago, 


C o C. L. 


Bryant. 


111. 



STAMPS. 

Be sure that you affix the proper stamps to every letter 
before you mail it. 

A letter will not be forwarded unless one full rate be pre- 
paid. 

The stamps should be placed on the upper right-hand 
corner of the envelope, about an eighth of an inch from the 
end, and about half as far from the top. It should be put 
on right end up, and with the edges of the stamp parallel 
with the edges of the envelope. Putting on a stamp upside 
down, or awry, indicates carelessness, or a slip-shod way of 
doing business, and, besides, is disrespectful to the person 
addressed. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



MISCELLANEOUS FACTS AND SUGGESTIONS. 

Observe carefully the following facts and suggestions: 

See that every letter and package sent by mail is securely- 
folded and fastened. 

Use only good strong envelopes and heavy wrappers, 
Heavy articles should be secured with a string. 

Never send money (except in small amounts) or other 
articles of value in an unregistered letter. 

See that every letter contains your full name and address 
inside. 

See that the outside address is full, and plainly written. 
On foreign letters not only the name of the town and city, 
but also the name of the country should be written. 

When you drop a letter or paper into a street letter box,, 
see that it does not stick fast. 

To use or attempt to use a stamp that has already been 
used, is punishable by a fine of fifty dollars. 

To insure the forwarding of a letter it must have not less 
than two cents in postage stamps affixed. Be sure to affix 
stamps enough. In doubtful cases put on another stamp. 

To enclose any written matter in printed matter subjects 
the mailing party to a fine of five dollars, unless the party 
addressed pays letter postage on the package. 

Both the paper and envelopes you use should be of the 
best quality at your command. 

Gentlemen may use either white or buff envelopes in 
writing to each other; but it is not in good taste to send a 
buff envelope to a lady, nor do ladies use that kind at all. 

Avoid writing a letter with a pencil or with other than 
black ink. 

Avoid erasures or blots, even if you are compelled to 
rewrite the letter. 

In ordering goods by letter, be careful to state plainly 
what articles you want — the quality, quantity, etc., on what 
terms, and how you want them sent, whether by mail or 
express, or as freight. 

In opening letters containing money, the latter should 
be immediately counted and the sum noted. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



Except in writing dates and sums of money, do not use 
figures in the body of a letter. 

Write abbreviations of the names of states and provinces 
with the greatest care. 

Be careful to begin a new paragraph when you begin to 
write about an entirely new subject. 

Matters of friendship and private confidence have no 
place in letters of business. 

Advice respecting the circumstances of other merchants 
and their suspected deficiencies is sometimes necessary, but 
requires the utmost prudence and caution. 

Letters about one's own affairs requiring an answer 
should always enclose a stamp to pay return postage. 

Letters of recommendation or introduction should never 
be sealed. 

In social correspondence do not be afraid to write of 
little things. Things that are worth talking about are worth 
writing about. 

All letters that are to be answered should be answered 
promptly. It is as necessary to answer when written to as it 
is to speak when spoken to. 

BUSINESS LETTERS. 

The chief requisites of a business letter are clearness, 
correctness, and conciseness. 

Of the many varieties of business letters we shall notice 
only the following: 

1. Letters of introduction (business). 

2. Letters of credit. 

3. Letters of application. 

4. Letters of recommendation. 

5. Mercantile letters. 

A business letter of introduction is an introduction for 
business purposes only, and entails no social obligations. 

In style, it should resemble other business letters; that 

is, it should be clear, accurate, and concise. It should be 

left unsealed, though the bearer may seal it before delivery. 

The superscription is the same as if the letter were to be 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 21 3 

sent by mail, except that the words introducing Mr. A., or 
Mr. B., are written in the lower left-hand corner. No stamp 
is required, as the letter is not to go through the mail. 
Notice following model: 



Powers, Wightman & Co., 
Introducing Philadelphia, 

Mr. George Hunt. Pa. 



SPECIMEN LETTER. 

Chicago, III., April 15, 1895. 
F. E. Gray, 

Alhambra, Los Angeles Co., Cal. 
Dear Sir: — Allow me to introduce to you the bearer, Mr. 
Charles Wilson, who visits your State as the agent of a col- 
ony now organizing in this city. 

Will you kindly give Mr. Wilson the benefit of your 
thorough knowledge of your State, and of your long expe- 
rience in selecting lands suitable for the cultivation of fruit? 
Any assistance you may be able to render him will be 
considered as a personal favor. 

Yours very truly, 

James L. Drummond. 

SHORT FORM. 

Fainesville, Lake Co., Ohio, 
April 20, 1895. 
Snou & Devins, 

qj Lake St., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — The bearer, Mr. Howell Rice, wishes to pur- 
chase a home in Chicago. 

Please assist him to the extent of your ability, and oblige, 
Yours truly. 

R. S. Storrs. 



214 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

A CREDIT LETTER. 

The model given below is self-explaining: 

Peoria, III., April 15, 1895. 
Marshall Field & Co., 

Cor. State a?ul Washington Sts., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — Please allow Mr. Thomas Sanders a credit for 
such goods as he may select, to an amount not exceeding 
One Thousand Dollars ($1,000), for sixty days, and I will 
hold myself responsible to you for the payment of the same 
should Mr. Sanders fail to make payment at the proper time. 
Please inform me of the amount for which you give him 
credit, and in default of payment please notify me imme- 
diately. 

Yours respectfully, 

William J. Wheeler. 
Somewhat akin to this class of letters are orders for 
goods to be delivered to a third person, and to be charged 
to your account. 

SPECIMEN ORDER. 

Chicago, April 15, 1895. 
Streeter Brothers, 

Madiso7i St., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — Please let my clerk, Willis Walters, have 
goods from your store to any amount not exceeding Twenty- 
five Dollars, and charge the same to my account. 
Yours respectfully, 

John R. Summer-. 
EXERCISE 6. 

Copy the preceding letters, and write the following in 
accordance with previous instructions. 

1. 

Heading— Hartford Conn. May 12, 1895. 

Address — E. Goodridge and Co., 144 La Salle St., Chicago. 

Body — Introducing Mr. Henry J. Lyman, who visits 
Chicago for the purpose of establishing himself in the hard- 
ware business. 

Complimentary close. 

Signature — P. E. Stanley & Co. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 21 5 

2. 

Write a letter of credit from G. D.Anthony, Quincy, 111., 
to John J. Farwell and Co., Chicago, requesting them to 
favor Charles Oswald with a credit for merchandise to an 
amount not to exceed One Thousand Dollars. Time, thirty 
days. 

3. 

Write an order on Charles H. Slack grocer Wabash Ave. 
Chicago, for one barrel XXX flour to be delivered to Dennis 
O'Brien 724 W. Madison and charge to your account. 

4. 

Write an order on the Putnam Clothing Co., Corner of 
Clark and Madison Sts. for one suit of substantial clothing, 
not to exceed $20 in value, to be delivered to W. R. Lyon 
and bill for same to be sent to your office 138 La Salle St. 

5. 

Write a short letter of introduction to Baird and Bradley 
90 La Salle St., Chicago, in favor of R. G. McCormick. 

LETTERS OF APPLICATION. 

A letter of application should be very carefully written, as 
the letter itself is regarded as a part, often the principal 
part, of the evidence of the writer's fitness or unfitness for 
the position applied for. 

Examine carefully every word and sentence of the letter 
before sending it, and if a single mistake is found rewrite 
the whole. An hour, or even a day, spent in preparing it, 
may, if the position be a valuable one, prove time well spent. 

Let your letter be modest, but self-respectful. State 
briefly your qualifications and business experience, giving 
your references, and leaving your full qualifications to be 
stated by others. 

SPECIMEN LETTER. 

Chicago, April 14, 1895. 
D.M. Hill and Co., 

05 Franklin St., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — Having noticed in the Morning Herald your 



2l6 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

advertisement calling for the services of a bookkeeper, I beg 
leave to offer myself for the position, feeling confident that 
I am qualified to fill it to your satisfaction. 

I am thirty-two years of age, healthy, active, married. 
I have had five years' experience with my last employer, 
D. M. Frazier, who has recently retired from business, 
but who will cheerfully bear witness to my qualifications. 

Should my application be regarded favorably, I shall 
endeavor to justify the confidence you may repose in me. 

Yours respectfully, 

Howard Wilson. 

Chicago, April 16, 1895. 
C.43:— 

Sir, I saw your advertisement yesterday in the Daily 
News. I beg leave to apply for the position. I am four- 
teen years old and live at home. 

This is a specimen of my writing. 

Respectfully yours, 

John Maxwell. 

APPLICATION FOR INCREASE OF SALARY. 

Milwaukee, May 1, 1895. 
L. E. Waterman a?id Co. 

Gentlemen: — I have been awaiting a favorable moment 
for speaking with you in reference to the promised increase 
of my salary; but as no convenient time has presented 
itself, I take the liberty of addressing you in writing. 

The increased amount of business during the past year, 
as you are aware, has added greatly to my duties. Never- 
theless, I have done my utmost to be prompt and accurate 
in their performance, and I trust that my efforts have met 
with your approval. 

Will you kindly regard this matter as liberally as possible, 
and oblige, 

Yours respectfully, 

Henry W. Strong. 



MANUAL OF. BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 21J 

APPLICATION FOR SITUATION AS TEACHER. 

Maywood, III., April 15, 1895. 
Secretary School Board, 

Riverside, Illinois. 
Dear Sir: — Understanding that a vacancy in the principal- 
ship of your school has occurred, I beg leave to offer myself 
as a candidate for the position. 

I am thirty-six years of age; married; have two children. 
I am a graduate of Michigan State University, and have 
taught successfully for ten years. I enclose a copy of my 
certificate from the County Superintendent of Schools. 

I would be willing to teach for the first year at a salary 
of $1,200. 

If you can give me any encouragement in the matter, 
I shall be pleased to make personal application. 

Respectfully yours, 

Wm. McLain. 

ADVERTISEMENT FOR OFFICE BOY. 

Wanted:- -A boy to do office work; must reside with 
his parents, and be well recommended. Salary, $6 per 
week. 

Address, in own handwriting, N. F., Box 1148, Chicago 
Post Office. 

REPLY TO ABOVE. 

Chicago, April 8, 1895. 
N. F., Box 1 148, P. 0. 

Sir: — I would respectfully apply for the position of 
office boy, as per your advertisement in to-day's Tribune. 
I am fifteen years old, reside with my parents at 11 84 
West Madison St., and refer you to E. E. Harper, No. 
96 Randolph St., whose testimonial I enclose. 

Very truly yours, 

Peter Simpson. 
EXERCISE 7. 

1. In accordance with previous instructions, write a 
letter of application to Fuller & Fuller, Chicago, asking 
for a position as junior clerk. 



2l8 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

2. Answer X 83, Herald office, who advertises for an 
entry clerk. 

3. Write an application for the position of collector, 
addressed to Moore Bros., 288 West Madison St., Chicago. 

4. Write an application to E. Miller & Co., 41 River 
St., Chicago, asking for a position as commercial traveler. 

5. Write to your employer, Edson Keith & Co., asking 
an increase of salary. 

EXERCISE 8. 

Answer the following advertisements: 

1. Wanted:— For the Maywood Collegiate Institute a 
male teacher, as head of Mathematical Department. Sal- 
ary, $1,000. Apply to R. B. Barney, Secretary, Maywood, 
111. 

2. Wanted: — Bookkeeper; man who can keep a plain set 
of books in paint and oil store. Address, E 79, Chicago 
Tribune. 

3. Wanted: — Office boy about fifteen years old; must be 
a fair penman and willing to work. Address, C 53, Daily 
News. 

4. Salesman wanted for staples, pushing and energetic 
man. State salary wanted, and give references. C 204, 
Globe office. 

5. Junior Clerk wanted; must be a good penman, and 
quick at figures. Address, X 84, Times office. 

LETTERS OF RECOMMENDATION. 

This class of letters may be special or general. Those of 
the former class are addressed, like ordinary letters, to some 
particular person; those of the latter class are not limited as 
to person or occasion. 

Great care should be exercised in giving recommenda- 
tions. Never recommend an unworthy person, and never 
recommend too highly. It is sometimes hard to refuse a 
testimonial, but it is very wrong to give a false one. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 2IO, 

GENERAL RECOMMENDATION. 

Ann Arbor, Mich., April 15, 1895. 
To whom it may concern : 

The bearer, Mr. Stanley Turner, is personally known to 
me as a young man of unblemished character and strict in- 
tegrity. He graduated at the University in this city with 
high honors, two years ago, and since that time he has been 
perfecting himself in modern languages, under the guid- 
ance of our ablest instructors. 

As a member of society, he is of good family and highly 
esteemed. 

I cheerfully commend him to good people everywhere, 
and especially to those to whom he may offer his services, 
whether commercially or socially. 

Very respectfully, 

Jas. B. Frieze, A. M. 

ANOTHER FORM. 

Wheaton, Du Page Co., III., 

April 15, 1895. 
Having learned that Mr. John Smith is desirous of leav- 
ing this State to engage in the work of teaching on the Pa- 
cific Coast, I am pleased to say, that I have known him long 
and intimately; that his character is above reproach, and 
that he has shown himself possessed of tact, learning, en- 
thusiasm, ability to govern, in short, of all the highest ele- 
ments of the successful teacher. 

I, therefore, earnestly recommend him to any who de- 
sire to employ a good instructor, feeling confident that he 
will satisfy all reasonable expectations. 

Morris L. Saunders, 

County Snpt. of ScJiools. 

RECOMMENDING A BOOKKEEPER. 

Chicago, April 15, 1895. 
Messrs. Burlap & Doyle, 

St. Louis, Mo. 
Gentlemen: — -Mr. Frank Morgan, the bearer, who is now 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



leaving our employ, has been in our counting room five 
years, and has faithfully discharged all the duties devolving 
upon him during that time. He has shown himself indus- 
trious, intelligent, and reliable. He is a good penman, a 
correct accountant, and is well acquainted with correspond- 
ence. 

We will at any time cheerfully respond to any inquiries 
that may be made respecting his ability or character, and 
we wish him success in all his undertakings. 

Very truly yours, 

E. L. Drugget & Co. 

RECOMMENDING A COOK. 

Grand Rapids, Mich., April 15, 1895. 
James De Puy, the bearer, has been employed at the 
Globe Hotel by us as chief cook, and we have found him 
well qualified to fill such a position. He is capable in all 
the branches of his art, and we have ever found him gentle- 
manly and obliging. 

Cutlet & Co. 

EXERCISE 9. 

1. As chairman of the school committee, write a recom- 
mendation for a teacher who has taught in your village the 
past three years. 

2. Recommend a salesman who has been in your 
employ the past six years. 

3. Write a general letter of recommendation for a clerk 
who has been in your service five years. 

4. Recommend your gardener to Henry White, No. 286 
River St., St. Louis, Mo. 

5. Recommend your porter, Dennis O'Neil, to Messrs. 
Brand & Sumner, Milwaukee, Wis. 

MERCANTILE LETTERS. 

There is a great variety of letters of this class, but the 
most important are those letters that order merchandise, 
and the answers to them, with enclosed invoices. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



These are letters that not only every merchant, but also 
every lady or gentleman has occasion to write, and they 
should, therefore, receive special attention. 

Letters ordering goods should state very clearly the 
quantity and kind of articles wanted, and how they are to 
be sent. 

In ordering books, the title, and author's and publisher's 
names should be stated, and if there are various editions, the 
edition wanted should be designated. 

In ordering dry goods, etc., a description of the quality 
should be given, either by number or otherwise, or else sam- 
ples should be sent. 

Do not give less than a line to each item. Write the 
quantity at the left of the page, and the price, if known, at 
the right. 

SPECIMEN LETTERS. 
REQUEST FOR PRICE LIST. 

Aurora, III., April 15, 1895. 
Chas. Strong & Co., Grocers, 

38 Wabash Ave., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — I have recently leased a store in this place, 
which I am fitting up, and stocking with a fine selection of 
Fancy Groceries, Wines, and Liquors. 

Please oblige me with your price list and best terms. 
I am respectfully yours, 

Richard Nolan. 

ORDER TO A GROCER. 

Evanston, III., May 7, 1895. 
Miller & Wilson, Grocers, 

45 State St., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — Please deliver to bearer, with bill of cost, the 
following articles: 

28 lbs. granulated sugar. 

3 " English breakfast tea. 

5 " Java coffee, roasted, unground. 

2 " Mocha " " " 



222 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

i box Dobbins' electric soap. 

5 gal. N. O. molasses. 

I brl. winter-wheat flour, XXX. 

50 lbs. yellow corn meal. 

20 " rice. 

Charge on account, and oblige 

Yours respectfully, 

Heman T. Greene. 

ORDER TO A DRY GOODS MERCHANT. 

St. Paul, Minn., May 1, 1895. 
Marshall Field & Co., 

Cor. State arid Washington Sts., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — Please send me by American Express the 
following articles: 

50 yds. Wincy checks, @ 20c. 

25 " English cashmere, black, 36 in. wide, @ 45c. 

20 " black silk faille, @ $1. 25. 

25 " linen canvas, drab, @ 15c. 

1 gross hooks and eyes. 

50 papers Clark's best needles, assorted sizes. 

I enclose P. O. Order for ten dollars. Please send 
C. O. D. for balance. 

Yours respectfully, 

Mrs. Anna Kohl, 

225 Grand St., St. Paul. 

Note. If the order is not very lengthy, it may be writ- 
ten as above in the body of the letter; but if the order is 
long, it should be made on a separate sheet, in which case 
the letter may be written thus: 

Gentlemen: — Please send by American Express the 
articles named in enclosed list. I send P. O. Order, $10. 
Please forward goods C. O. D. for balance. 
Yours respectfully, 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



223 



ANSWER ENCLOSING INVOICE. 

Chicago, April 8, 1895. 
Mrs. Anna Kohl, 

225 Grand St., St. Paul, Minn. 
Dear Madam: — We have this day shipped to your address, 
per American Express, the goods ordered in your favor of 
the 1st inst. 

Enclosed you will find an invoice of the same, amount- 
ing to Fifty-one and -£fa Dollars. 

Hoping that the goods may arrive safe and prove satis- 
factory, and soliciting further orders, we are 
Very respectfully yours, 

Marshall Field & Co. 

Per N . 



THE INVOICE. 

Chicago, April 8, 1895. 
Mrs. Anna Kohl, 

Bought of Marshall Field & Co., Dealers in Dry Goods, 

Cor. State and Washington Sts., Chicago. 



yds. Wincy Checks @ 20c 

" Eng. Cashmeres @ 45c 

" Black Silk Faille @ %\ 25 

" Linen Canvas @ 15c 

gro. Hooks and Eyes 

papers Clark's Needles (asstd.) 



Received on Account. 



Balance Due. 



610 


00 




11 


25 




25 


00 




3 


75 
40 




1 


00 




$51 


40 




$10 


00 


$41 



40 



Received payment, 

Marshall Field & Co. 

Note. When the bill is paid it should be receipted as 
above. If not paid at the time it is made out, the date of 
payment should be given with the receipt. 

EXERCISE 10. 

1. Write to Chas. H. Slack, grocer, corner of Wabash 
Ave. and Madison St., asking for price list of merchandise. 



224 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

2. Write to some grocer in Chicago, ordering ten arti- 
cles delivered to your messenger, the articles to be charged 
on account. 

3. Write to some dry goods firm, directing at least ten 
articles sent to your address. Enclose ten dollars; balance, 
C. O. D. 

4. Write the reply from the seller; also, the accompany- 
ing invoice. 

5. Write an order on a bookseller for five different 
kinds of school books, in large quantities. To be paid for 
by draft at thirty days. 

MISCELLANEOUS LETTERS. 

APPLICATION FOR PROSPECTUS. 

Oshkosh, Wis., April 15, 1895. 
H. IV. Bryant, 

Commercial College, Chicago. 
Dear Sir: — Please send me a copy of your Prospectus for 
the coming year, with circulars, etc. I design attending 
school the coming autumn, and would like some informa- 
tion concerning your terms, course of study, and rates of 
tuition. 

Yours respectfully, 

John D. Summers. 

LETTER ENCLOSING SUBSCRIPTION. 

Maywood, III., April 15, 1895. 
The Century Company, 

j j E. iyth St., New York. 
Gentlemen: — Enclosed you will find a Money Order for 
Four Dollars ($4), for which please send to my address a 
copy of the Century Magazine, for one year, beginning with 
the first number of the present volume. 

Yours respectfully, 

Clyde E. Barrett. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 225 

DEATH OF A PARTNER. 

Cleveland, O., April 12, 1895. 
H. B. Claflin & Co., 

New York City. 
Gentlemen: — It is with deep regret that we have to inform 
you of the recent death of our senior partner, Mr. Wm. E. 
Hart, which occurred on the 8th inst. 

At the same time, we have the satisfaction of stating that 
this sad event will in no way interfere with the future con- 
duct of our business, as arrangements are being made to sup- 
ply the place of our deceased partner. 

We have every reason to hope that we shall form a busi- 
ness connection with a New York house of the first respecta- 
bility, on whom the active management of our concerns in 
that city will devolve. 

For the present no alteration will be made in the name 
of our firm. 

The surviving partner, Mr. Lyman T. Soule, will conduct 
the affairs of the firm in this city as heretofore, and we con- 
fidently hope, from the experience you have had of our uni- 
form punctuality and regularity, that you will continue to 
favor us with your correspondence, resting assured that the 
same unremitting attention as formerly will be paid to the 
interests of our commercial friends. 

We remain, gentlemen, 

Yours very respectfully, 

Hart, Soule & Co. 

CHANGE OF FIRM NAME. 

Toledo, O., April 15, 1895. 
Crane, Stewart & Co., 

43 River St., Chicago. 
Gentlemen: — We beg leave to inform you of an alteration 
to take place in the name and co-partnership of this house, 
on March 1. Our Mr. H. J. Royce will withdraw, and Mr. 
B. L. Ames will be admitted as a partner. The name of the 
new firm will be Rogers & Ames. 

We request a continuance of your favor and support, and 



226 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

assure you that there will be no diminution of our means, 
nor relaxation of our efforts, to conduct the affairs of our 
house on the usual scale. 

Very truly yours, 

Rogers & Royce. 

A BUSINESS NOTICE. 

Chicago, April 2, 1895. 
E. L. Hulburt, Esq., 

236 Dearborn Ave. 
Dear Sir: — A special meeting of the Board of Trade is 
called, to be held at the Hall to-night at 9 o'clock. 

Very important business. You are requested to be 
present. By order of the President, 

E. K. Lawrence, 

Secretary. 

REFUSAL TO FILL AN ORDER. 

Milwaukee, Wis., May 1, 1895. 
Mr. Henry Willis, 

Oshkosh, Wis. 
Dear Sir: — In reply to your favor of the 25th ult, we have 
to say that we must ask you to remit the cash before filling 
your order. 

We trust that you will not consider us unnecessarily 
harsh; you must remember that we know nothing of you, 
and that the profit on our goods is very small. 

Perhaps, we may become better acquainted in the future. 
Awaiting your reply, we remain 

Respectfully yours, 

Fowler, Wells & Co. 

EXERCISE 11. 

1. Write to O. M. Moore, president of the Metropolitan 
Art Institute, asking for prospectus, circulars, etc. 

2. Write to Harper and Brothers, New York, enclosing 
P. O. Order for five dollars, and asking them to send Har- 
per s Monthly to your address for one year. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 227 

3. Write to your business correspondent in Buffalo, 
N. Y., announcing the retirement of one of your firm. 

4. Write to the same house under date a month later, 
announcing the accession of a new partner. 

5. You are secretary of a school board. By order of 
the president, write a notice to one of the members, of a. 
special meeting, and ask his attendance. 



NOTES OF CEREMONY AND COMPLIMENT. 

All short letters are, in one sense, notes; but by the term 
as here used is meant those brief messages by which persons 
in the same neighborhood, town or city, make known to 
each other their wishes, compliments or commands. 

They are generally written in the third person, the date 
is properly placed at the bottom, and they are without sig- 
nature. 

Dinner invitations should be promptly accepted or de- 
clined, that the entertainer may know for how many and for 
whom to provide. If the invitation is declined, it is more 
courteous to state a reason for non-acceptance than to de- 
cline without assigning a reason. 

Great care and precision should be observed in issuing 
invitations to dinners, and, to avoid mistakes, the date and 
hour should be given, and each should contain the name of 
the person for whom it is intended. The letters R. S. V. P., 
often used at the bottom of such notes, are the initials of a 
sentence in French signifying: "Answer, if you please." 

A few models are here subjoined: 

INVITATION TO DINNER. 

Mr. E. R. Barney requests the pleasure of Mr. C. P. 
Kimball's company at dinner, on Wednesday evening, May 
26th at eight o'clock. 

Grand Pacific Hotel, 

Saturday, April 22, 1895. 



228 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

ACCEPTANCE. 

Mr. C. P. Kimball has much pleasure in accepting Mr. 
E. R. Barney's kind invitation for Wednesday evening, 
May 26th. 

Palmer House, 

Monday, April 24, 1895. 

REGRET. 

Mr. C. P. Kimball regrets that, owing to a previous 
engagement, he is unable to accept Mr. E. R. Barney's kind 
invitation for Wednesday evening, May 26th. 
Palmer House, 

Monday, April 24, 1895. 

AN INVITATION TO DRIVE. 

Will Miss Barnum do Mr. Daniels the honor to accom- 
pany him in a drive to South Park this afternoon? If so, 
Miss Barnum will please state what hour will be most con- 
venient. 

Grand Pacific Hotel, 

Monday morning, June I. 

THE INVITATION ACCEPTED. 

Miss Barnum accepts with pleasure Mr. Daniels' kind 
invitation for this afternoon, and desires to say that 3 o'clock 
will be her most convenient hour for starting. 
2463 Calumet Ave., June 1. 

THE INVITATION DECLINED. 

Miss Barnum presents her compliments to Mr. Daniels, 
and regrets that a previous engagement will prevent her 
acceptance of his kind invitation. 

2463 Calumet Ave., June 1. 

Intimate friends may drop the formal and ceremonious 
style, and adopt that of a familiar letter, thus: 

Thursday morning, May 6. 
Dear Lizzie: — We are going to the woods this afternoon 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 229 

for wild flowers. Will you oblige us by making one of our 
little party? 

If so, we will call for you at I o'clock. Do go. 
Yours affectionately, 

Sadie. 
Please answer by bearer. 

Friend Sayers: — I shall have a few friends here at dinner 
on Wednesday the ioth, at 5 o'clock. 

Will you oblige me by making one of the number? 
Sincerely yours, 

Bradner Wilson. 
Clarendon Hotel, April 8, 1895. 

EXERCISE 12. 

1. Write a formal invitation to a dinner party, inviting 
a gentleman and his wife. 

2. Write an informal invitation for the same persons. 

3. Write a formal acceptance of your invitation No. 1. 

4. Write a formal declination of the same. 

5. Write an informal invitation to one of your friends 
to attend your birthday party. 

REVIEW EXERCISES. 

1. Write a note to a relative or a friend returning thanks 
for a present he has sent you. 

2. Write a letter renewing your subscription to some 
magazine, 

3. Write a formal note, in the name of your mother, 
inviting some friend to take tea at your house. 

4. Write an informal note inviting a friend to take a 
drive with you. 

5. Write to a friend who has met with some accident or 
affliction. Express your sympathy and offer help. 

6. Write an informal note congratulating a friend who 
has won a prize at school. 

7. Order from Jas. Vick, Rochester, N. Y., a list of some 
flower seeds, bulbs, etc., which you would like to purchase. 



23O MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

8. Write to a bookseller ordering a list of books. 

9. Write a note requesting an interview. State clearly 
the time and place. 

10. Write to the publisher of a newspaper asking him to 
discontinue sending the paper to you. 

11. Write to a merchant in another city asking him to 
send samples of silks, with price list of same. 

12. Write an informal note to a friend in a distant town, 
inviting him or her to pay you a visit. 

13. Write an informal note to a friend announcing some 
good news. 

14. Write a note to accompany a Christmas gift which 
you send to a friend. 

15. Write a note to some one, asking him to contribute 
money to aid some good cause. 

16. Apply for a situation as a clerk, bookkeeper, or 
teacher, stating briefly your qualifications. 

17. Write a note of apology for some thoughtless act. 

18. Write a note from a father asking a teacher to excuse 
his son's absence from school. 

19. Write a note to some person of influence asking for 
a recommendation, with a view of obtaining a situation. 

20. Write a note to a business man introducing a friend 
who is a stranger in the city. 

21. Answer an advertisement for a clerk. State your 
qualifications and experience; name the salary you expect; 
give references. 

22. Write to one of your creditors stating that you are 
unable to meet your engagements; give reasons for your 
failure; state your hopes for the future, and ask an exten- 
sion of time. 

23. Acknowledge the receipt of a consignment of wheat. 
Give your views of the market, and advise delay in selling it. 

24. Write to Tray & Williams, No. 63 Broad St., Buffalo, 
N. Y., notifying them that you have deposited your ten days' 
sight draft on them in the First National Bank for collec- 
tion. Amount of draft, $500. Request them to honor it. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 23 1 

25. Write a letter to a mercantile house calling attention 
to an error in an invoice. 

26. Write a letter to a tardy debtor requesting payment 
of an account. 

27. Write to Rich & Weeks, 133 S. Water St., Chicago, 
in reference to a shipment of apples that you wish to make. 

28. Write from Louisville, Ky., to A. S. Barnes & Co., 
New York, ordering school books on thirty days' time. 

29. Apply to the ^Etna Fire Ins. Co., Hartford, Conn., 
making application for an agency. 

30. Write a confidential letter to Messrs. Grimes & 
Burkey, 1235 Broadway, N. Y., asking their opinion as to the 
stability of Wilson & Harper, 172 Dey St., who wish you to 
ship them a quantity of butter. 

31. Write a social letter to a friend giving items of news, 
and describing a recent holiday of yours. 

32. Write to an intimate friend, at a distance, notifying 
him that you are about to make him a visit. Give particu- 
lars and name the train on which you expect to leave. 

33. Write to your grocer, from whom you have recently 
received a monthly statement of your account. Enclose ten 
dollars, and ask a few days' time on the balance. 

34. Answer an advertisement for a teacher, stating your 
qualifications and experience, also the salary you expect to 
receive. Give references. 

35. You are at Denver, Col. Write to P. D. Armour & 
Co., Chicago, notifying them that you have shipped them 
five carloads A No. 1 steers. Say to them that you have 
drawn on them, at ten days' sight, for £1,000, through the 
First National Bank. 

36. You are living at Omaha, Neb. Write an advisory 
letter to a friend in Chicago who proposes to sell out his 
business, and remove to your city. 

37. Van Dervent & Brown, 145 Broadway, N. Y., owe you 
five hundred dollars. Notify them that you will draw on 
them for that amount, on the 25th inst., through the Ninth 
National Bank of that city. 

38. Draw up a petition to the Mayor and Aldermen of 



232 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

your city calling their attention to the condition of certain 
streets, and asking that they be put in order. 

39. The merchants of your town have agreed to close 
their places of business at 7 o'clock each evening of the 
week except Saturday evening, when they intend to keep 
open till ten. Draw up a notice for the public to that effect. 

40. You have a house for sale. Write an advertisement 
stating this and describing the house. 

41. You have a store to rent. Write an advertisement 
locating and describing it. 

42. You have a farm for sale. Notify the public by 
means of an advertisement. Describe farm, and state terms 
of sale. 

43. You wish to buy a horse. Advertise for one, describ- 
ing the animal you wish to purchase. 

44. You have lost your watch Advertise describing it 
and offering reward. 

45. You have found a watch Advertise for the owner. 

46. You have a back room in your office which you will 
rent to a gentleman requiring desk accommodations. Write 
an advertisement. 

47. You are at the head of a wholesale house in Chicago. 
One of your travelers is at Omaha. Write directing him to 
visit the Pacific Coast, returning by way of the Southern 
Pacific R. R., canvassing all the large towns on his route. 

48. Write a congratulatory letter to a young friend who 
has lately won high honors at Harvard College 

49. Put yourself in place of the young friend, and reply 
to the letter. 

50. You have established yourself in a country town as 
agent for all kinds of agricultural implements. Write a cir- 
cular letter to be sent to each farmer in the vicinity. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



233 



COMMON BUSINESS FORMS. 
AN ITEMIZED BILL. 

Quincy, III., April 15, ii 



Mr. Harold Brown. 



1895. 



To Sykes & Derwent, Dr. 



Apr. 



To 12 lbs. Granulated Sugar @ 10c 

" 15 " Coffee H. " @ 8c 

'* 2 " Tea @ 50c 

" 3 " Coffee @ 25c 

" 15 " Butter @ 25c 

" 1 brl. XXX Flour 



s 1 


20 




1 


20 




1 


00 
75 




3 


75 




6 


00 


$13 | 



Received payment \ 

Sykes & Derwent. 

Per Smith. 

If the above was not paid at April 15th it would not be 
receipted, and the bill for the following month might be 
this: 



Mr. Harold Brown, 



Quincy, III., May 15, 1895. 
To Sykes & Derwe?it, Dr. 



May 


1 


" 


11 


" 


11 


" 


20 


" 


25 



To account rendered 

" 2 gal. Syrup @ 65c 

" 20 bars Roger's Soap @ 5c 

" 15 lbs. Rio Coffee @ 30c 

" 1 brl. XXX Flour 

Received payment. 



$13 


90 




1 


30 




1 


00 




4 


50 




6 


00 


$26 



TO 



RECEIPTS, ORDERS, DUE BILLS. 

A receipt is a written acknowledgment that certain 
moneys or goods have been received. 

When a payment has been made a receipt should be 
taken as proof of the payment. 

Austin, III., April 6, 1895. 
Received of Henry W. Riggs, Twenty-five Dollars, to 
apply on his account. 

Calvin L. Adams. 



234 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

An order is a paper, addressed to an individual or to a 
firm, requesting the payment or delivery of certain moneys 
or goods on account of the writer. 

Toledo, O., April 15, 1895. 
Messrs. Streeter & King will please deliver to the bearer, 
Mr. James Adams, Ten Dollars in goods, and charge the 
same to my account. 

Wallace Williams. 

A due bill is a written acknowledgment that a certain 
amount is due. If payment is to be made in anything 
besides cash, it should be so stated in the body of the bill- 

Chicago, April 5, 1895. 
Due D. L. Musselman, or order, Twenty-five Dollars in 
goods from our store. 

Jackson, Davis & Co. 

A promissory note is a written promise to pay uncondition- 
ally and at all events a specified sum of money. 

The person who makes the note is called the maker, and 
the person to whom it is payable is called the payee. 

NOTE NEGOTIABLE WITHOUT INDORSEMENT. 

$100. New York, April 7, 1895. 

Ninety days after date, I promise to pay Harvey Weeks, 
or bearer, One Hundred Dollars; value received 

J. A. McDonald. 

NOTE NEGOTIABLE WITH INDORSEMENT. 

Si 00. New York, April 7, 1895. 

Ninety days after date, I promise to pay Harvey Weeks, 
or order, One Hundred Dollars; value received. 

J. A. McDonald. 

NOTE NON=NEGOTIABLE. 

$100. Chicago, April 10, 1895. 

Ninety days after date, I promise to pay Henry Waldo, 
One Hundred Dollars; value received 

Henry Wadsworth. 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 235 

PRINCIPAL AND SURETY. 

$100. Chicago, April io, 1895. 

Ninety days after date, I promise to pay Henry Norton, 
or order, One Hundred Dollars; value received. 

John A. Gore, Principal. 

Alonzo Spencer, Surety. 

JOINT NOTE. 

$1000. Philadelphia, April 20, 1895. 

Six months after date, we jointly promise to pay Seely 
Cook, or order, One Thousand Dollars; value received. 

Reuben Gunn. 

Elias Goodman. 

JOINT AND SEVERAL NOTE. 

$1000. Philadelphia, April 30, 1895. 

Six months after date, we jointly and severally promise to 
pay Seely Cook, or order, One Thousand Dollars; value 
received. 

Reuben Gunn. 
Alonzo Spencer. 

A RECEIPT FOR RENT. 

Chicago, May 1, 1895. 
Received from John D. Willis, One Hundred and Forty 
Dollars, being amount in full for one quarter's rent of my 
house, No. 65 North Halsted St., for quarter ending July 31, 

1895- 

$140. George Hoffman. 

A CHECK. 

No. 24. Chicago, April 10, 1895. 

First National Ba?ik of Chicago. 
Pay to the order of John Gibson, Two Hundred and 
Fifty Dollars. 
$25oV\,V John J. Wells. 



236 MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 

CHECK No. 2. 

$258 T W Toledo, Ohio, May i, 1895. 

First National Bank of Toledo. 
Pay to the order of Richard G. Roe, Two Hundred Fifty 
Eight and T W Dollars. 
No. 56. O. S. Grimes. 

SIGHT DRAFT. 

#3°°nri7- Chicago, May 20, 1895. 

At sight, pay to S. S. Bancroft, or order, Three Hundred 
Dollars, and charge same to the account of 
To John P. Jones, Warren Lucas. 

54 Superior St., 
Cleveland, 0. 

TIME DRAFT. 

#5 00 iVo- Warren, O., April 20, 1895. 

Thirty days after sight, pay to the order of David 
Bond, Five Hundred Dollars, and charge the same to the 
account of 

To Cwnmings & Lynch, Warren Lucas. 

4j8 River St., Chicago. 

BILL OF SALE. 

I, Harvey Cook, of Austin, 111., in consideration of One 
Hundred Dollars paid to me by Henry Welch, of Oak Park, 
111., do hereby sell and convey to said Henry Welch the fol- 
lowing personal property, viz: — 

Here describe the property. 

Warranted against adverse claims. 

Witness my hand, this 15th day of April, 1895. 

Harvey Cook. 
Executed and delivered 

. ,, r \ I Fitness' names. 

in the presence 01 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 237 

EXERCISE ON FORMS. 

1. Make an itemized bill of not less than five articles of 
hardware sold by you to a customer. 

2. Write a receipt for Fifty Dollars, paid you on account 
by your debtor. 

3. Write an order on a tailor for a suit of clothes not to 
exceed in value thirty dollars, to be made for your janitor. 

4. Write a due bill for John Smith showing that there is 
due him ten dollars in goods from your store. 

5. You owe Henry McDonald one hundred dollars. 
Write a note negotiable by endorsement to be given him in 
settlement. 

6. Write a receipt for rent paid you for your house, No. 
78 Elm St., Philadelphia, for the quarter ending April i , 1895. 

7. Write a check on some bank for one hundred dollars. 

8. Write a draft at sight on same bank for same amount. 

9. Write a ninety days' draft on same bank for same 
amount. 

10. Write a bill of sale of a horse, describing him, in 
favor of Wm. G. Wilkins, Evanston, 111. 

COMMERCIAL ABBREVIATIONS. 

@ At Bro't Brought 

A 1 First quality B'k Bank 

Acct Account Bds Boards 

A. D.,In the year of our Lord C One Hundred 

Agt Agent c, or cts Cents 

Amt Amount Cap Capital 

A. M Before noon Capt Captain 

Am America C. B Cash Book 

Ans Answer Chap Chapter 

Ass'd Assorted Ch'gd Charged 

Ass't Assistant Chas Charles 

B. A British America CI Clergyman 

Bal Balance Cks Casks 

Brl., or Bbi Barrel Co Company 

B. C Before Christ C. O. D. . .Collect on delivery 

Bu., or Bush Bushel Col'd Colored 

Bdls Bundles Col Colonel 

Bxs Boxes Com Commission 

Bis Bales Consg't Consignment 



238 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



Cr Creditor 

Cwt Hundredweight 

D Five hundred 

d Pence 

Dem Democrat 

D'ft Draft 

Disc't Discount 

Do The same 

Doz Dozen 

Dr Debtor 

Ds., or da Days 

Div Dividend 

E East 

ea each 

E. E Errors excepted 

Ed Editor 

e. g example given 

E. & O. E .Errors and omis- 

sions excepted 

Emb'd Embroidered 

Eng English 

Esq Esquire 

Etc And other things 

E Example 

Exch Exchange 

Exp Expenses 

Exe Executor 

Fahr Fahrenheit 

Far Farthing 

Fig'd Figured 

Fir Firkin 

Fol Folio, or page 

Fr't Freight 

Ft Feet 

F. C. B Folio cash book 

F. O. B Free on board 

Fur Furlong 

Gal Gallon 

G. A General average 

Gen General, or Genesis 

Gr., or Gro Gross 

Guar Guarantee 

Hh'd Hogshead 

HTf Half 

Hd Head 

Hdkfs Handkerchiefs 



Hon Honorable 

Hr Hour 

I. B Invoice book 

lb In the same place 

In Inch 

i. e That is 

Ins Insurance 

Inst Present month 

Int Interest 

Invt Inventory 

Inv Invoice 

Ir Irish 

J Justice, or Judge 

J. P Justice of the Peace 

Jr., or Jun Junior 

L Fifty 

Lat Latitude 

Lbs Pounds 

Ledg Ledger 

Leg Legislature 

Long Longitude 

L. F Ledger folio 

L. s. d. ..Pounds, shillings, 
pence 

Lt Lieutenant 

M Noon, or a thousand 

M. C. ..Member of Congress 

M. D Doctor of Medicine 

Mdse Merchandise 

Mem Memorandum 

Messrs. . .Gentlemen, or Sirs 

Mo Month 

Mr Mister 

Mrs Mistress 

MS Manuscript 

MSS Manuscripts 

Mt Mountain 

N. B Take notice 

N. E New England 

No Number 

Nov November 

Obd't Obedient 

Oct October 

O. I. B Outward invoice 

book 
Oz Ounce 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



239 



P Page 

P. M Postmaster 

P. M Afternoon 

Pp Pages 

Pay't Payment 

Pd Paid 

Per, or pr By 

P. C. B Petty cash book 

Pk'g Package 

P. O Post Office 

P. O. O.-.Post Office Order 

Pr Pair 

Prem Premium 

Prof Professor 

Prin Principal 

P. S Postscript 

Qr Quarter 

Qu Question 

Qy Query 

R River 

Re'c'd Received 

Rec't Receipt 

Rep Republican 

Rev Reverend 

R. R Railroad 

Rls Rolls 

S. A South America 

S. B Sales book 

Sec Secretary 

Sen., or Sr Senior 

Sept September 



Schr Schooner 

Sh Ship 

Ship't Shipment 

St Saint, or Street 

St'bt Steamboat 

Stor Storage 

Str Steamer 

Sunds Sundries 

Super Superfine 

Supt Superintendent 

S. W Southwest 

Tho' Though 

Treas Treasurer 

Ult Last month 

Univ University 

U. S. A United States of 

America 
U. S. A . . United States Army 
U. S. N . . United States Navy 

Viz Namely 

Vol Volume 

V Against 

V. P Vice-President 

Wk Week 

Wt Weight 

Xmas Christmas 

Yds Yards 

Yr Year 

Y. M. C. A Young Men's 

Christian Association 
Yrs Years 



NAMES OF THE DAYS. 



Sun Sunday 

Mon Monday 

Tues Tuesday 

Wed Wednesday 



Thurs Thursday 

Fri Friday 

Sat Saturday 



POINTS OF COMPASS. 



. .East 

North 



W West 

S South 



240 



MANUAL OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE. 



NAMES OF MONTHS. 

Jan January July July 

Feb February Aug August 

Mar March Sept September 

Apr April Oct October 

May May Nov November 

June June Dec December 

NAMES OF STATES AND TERRITORIES. 



Ala Alabama 

Alaska Alaska Ter. 

Ariz Arizona Ter. 

Ark Arkansas 

Cal California 

Colo Colorado 

Conn Connecticut 

N. Dak North Dakota 

S. Dak South Dakota 

Del Delaware 

D. C. .District of Columbia 

Fla Florida 

Ga Georgia 

Idaho Idaho 

111 Illinois 

Ind Indiana 

Ind. T Indian Territory 

Iowa Iowa 

Kans Kansas 

Ky Kentucky 

La Louisiana 

Me Maine 

Md Maryland 

Mass Massachusetts 

Mich Michigan 



Minn Minnesota 

Miss Mississippi 

Mo Missouri 

Mont Montana 

Neb Nebraska 

Nev Nevada 

N. H New Hampshire 

N. J New Jersey 

N. Mex New Mexico 

N. Y New York 

N. C North Carolina 

O Ohio 

Ore Oregon 

Pa Pennsylvania 

R. I Rhode Island 

S. C South Carolina 

Tenn Tennessee 

Tex Texas 

Utah Utah 

Vt Vermont 

Va Virginia 

Wash Washington 

W. Va West Virginia 

Wis Wisconsin 

Wyo Wyoming 



CANADIAN PROVINCES. 



Ont Ontario 

Que Quebec 

N. S Nova Scotia 

N. B New Brunswick 



P. E. I . Prince Edward Island 

Man Manitoba 

B. C British Columbia 



Alphabetical Index. 



PAGE. 

Abbreviations 174, 237- 240 

Abridgment 105 

Adjectives 7, 18 

Adverbs.. 7,74- 76 

Agreement 47 

Ambiguity 187 

Analysis 94 

Apposition 16, 109 

Arrangement 105, 133 

Articles 19 

Business Forms 233- 236 

Capitals 165, 171 

Cases 13 

Charts 16,22,34,73,96, 97 

Clauses 94 

Colon 160- 161 

Contractions 104 

Comma 147- 148 

Comparison 20 

Conjunctions 8, 82- 84 

Complement 36- 37 

Conjugation 51- 64 

Dash 163 

Declension 16, 26 

Discourse 94 

Due-Bills 234 

Elements 94 

Ellipsis 104 

Euphemism 195 

Exclamation Point 162 

Gender 9 

Grammar 7 

Independent Elements 100 

Infinitives 41 , 121, 122 

Interjections 84 

Interrogation Point 162 

Irregular Verbs 66- 71 

Letters 199 

Modifiers 98 

Modes 39, 42 



PAGE. 

Notes of Ceremony 227 

Notes,— Promissory 234, 235 

Nouns 7, 8 

Number 10, 46 

Orders 234 

Paragraph 94 

Parsing 8,84- 87 

Participles 50- 51 

Parts of Speech 7 

Parenthesis 163 

Peculiar Form s 109 

Personification 9 

Period 161 

Persons 10, 46 

.Phrase 94 

Predicate 98 

Prepositions 8, 77- 

Pronouns 7, 25- 

Punctuation 145- 



81 
33 
167 



Quotations 154 

Semicolon 158 

Sentences Classed 94 

Sentence Elements 98- 100 

Subjects 98 

Synonyms 191 

Syntax 94 

Synthesis 94 

Syntax,— Rules of 105-106 

Telegrams 193 

Tenses 42-45 

Use of Figures 164 

Verbs 7, 34 

Conjugation 52- 66 

Irregular 35,66- 67 

Auxiliary 37 

Defective 37 

Redundant 87 

Voice 85 

Words Used Variously 

87-90, 135- 141 



